diff --git a/TEST_MAPPING b/TEST_MAPPING
index c37fd19..5a422df 100644
--- a/TEST_MAPPING
+++ b/TEST_MAPPING
@@ -13,7 +13,16 @@
       "name": "art_standalone_dexpreopt_tests"
     },
     {
+      "name": "composd_cmd.test"
+    },
+    {
       "name": "compos_key_tests"
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "composd_verify.test"
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "initrd_bootconfig.test"
     }
   ],
   "avf-postsubmit": [
@@ -43,6 +52,9 @@
       "path": "packages/modules/Virtualization/avmd"
     },
     {
+      "path": "packages/modules/Virtualization/encryptedstore"
+    },
+    {
       "path": "packages/modules/Virtualization/virtualizationservice"
     },
     {
diff --git a/apkdmverity/src/main.rs b/apkdmverity/src/main.rs
index 6e12e38..50b6069 100644
--- a/apkdmverity/src/main.rs
+++ b/apkdmverity/src/main.rs
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@
 
 use anyhow::{bail, Context, Result};
 use apkverify::{HashAlgorithm, V4Signature};
-use clap::{App, Arg};
+use clap::{arg, Arg, ArgAction, Command};
 use dm::loopdevice;
 use dm::util;
 use dm::verity::{DmVerityHashAlgorithm, DmVerityTargetBuilder};
@@ -34,22 +34,12 @@
 use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
 
 fn main() -> Result<()> {
-    let matches = App::new("apkdmverity")
-        .about("Creates a dm-verity block device out of APK signed with APK signature scheme V4.")
-        .arg(Arg::from_usage(
-            "--apk... <apk_path> <idsig_path> <name> <root_hash> \
-                            'Input APK file, idsig file, name of the block device, and root hash. \
-                            The APK file must be signed using the APK signature scheme 4. The \
-                            block device is created at \"/dev/mapper/<name>\".' root_hash is \
-                            optional; idsig file's root hash will be used if specified as \"none\"."
-            ))
-        .arg(Arg::with_name("verbose").short('v').long("verbose").help("Shows verbose output"))
-        .get_matches();
+    let matches = clap_command().get_matches();
 
-    let apks = matches.values_of("apk").unwrap();
+    let apks = matches.get_many::<String>("apk").unwrap();
     assert!(apks.len() % 4 == 0);
 
-    let verbose = matches.is_present("verbose");
+    let verbose = matches.get_flag("verbose");
 
     for (apk, idsig, name, roothash) in apks.tuples() {
         let roothash = if roothash != "none" {
@@ -68,6 +58,28 @@
     Ok(())
 }
 
+fn clap_command() -> Command {
+    Command::new("apkdmverity")
+        .about("Creates a dm-verity block device out of APK signed with APK signature scheme V4.")
+        .arg(
+            arg!(--apk ...
+                "Input APK file, idsig file, name of the block device, and root hash. \
+                The APK file must be signed using the APK signature scheme 4. The \
+                block device is created at \"/dev/mapper/<name>\".' root_hash is \
+                optional; idsig file's root hash will be used if specified as \"none\"."
+            )
+            .action(ArgAction::Append)
+            .value_names(&["apk_path", "idsig_path", "name", "root_hash"]),
+        )
+        .arg(
+            Arg::new("verbose")
+                .short('v')
+                .long("verbose")
+                .action(ArgAction::SetTrue)
+                .help("Shows verbose output"),
+        )
+}
+
 struct VerityResult {
     data_device: PathBuf,
     hash_device: PathBuf,
@@ -380,4 +392,10 @@
             },
         );
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn verify_command() {
+        // Check that the command parsing has been configured in a valid way.
+        clap_command().debug_assert();
+    }
 }
diff --git a/authfs/TEST_MAPPING b/authfs/TEST_MAPPING
index ab6111b..450f133 100644
--- a/authfs/TEST_MAPPING
+++ b/authfs/TEST_MAPPING
@@ -4,6 +4,12 @@
       "name": "authfs_device_test_src_lib"
     },
     {
+      "name": "fd_server.test"
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "open_then_run.test"
+    },
+    {
       "name": "AuthFsHostTest"
     }
   ],
diff --git a/authfs/fd_server/Android.bp b/authfs/fd_server/Android.bp
index 44407a2..f7cb5e3 100644
--- a/authfs/fd_server/Android.bp
+++ b/authfs/fd_server/Android.bp
@@ -23,3 +23,25 @@
     ],
     apex_available: ["com.android.virt"],
 }
+
+rust_test {
+    name: "fd_server.test",
+    srcs: ["src/main.rs"],
+    rustlibs: [
+        "authfs_aidl_interface-rust",
+        "libandroid_logger",
+        "libanyhow",
+        "libauthfs_fsverity_metadata",
+        "libbinder_rs",
+        "libclap",
+        "liblibc",
+        "liblog_rust",
+        "libnix",
+        "librpcbinder_rs",
+    ],
+    prefer_rlib: true,
+    shared_libs: [
+        "libbinder_rpc_unstable",
+    ],
+    test_suites: ["general-tests"],
+}
diff --git a/authfs/fd_server/src/main.rs b/authfs/fd_server/src/main.rs
index 9d97423..f91ebec 100644
--- a/authfs/fd_server/src/main.rs
+++ b/authfs/fd_server/src/main.rs
@@ -148,3 +148,15 @@
     server.join();
     Ok(())
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use clap::CommandFactory;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn verify_args() {
+        // Check that the command parsing has been configured in a valid way.
+        Args::command().debug_assert();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/authfs/tests/common/Android.bp b/authfs/tests/common/Android.bp
index ec426c7..01ebcfd 100644
--- a/authfs/tests/common/Android.bp
+++ b/authfs/tests/common/Android.bp
@@ -31,3 +31,19 @@
     test_suites: ["general-tests"],
     test_harness: false,
 }
+
+rust_test {
+    name: "open_then_run.test",
+    crate_name: "open_then_run",
+    srcs: ["src/open_then_run.rs"],
+    edition: "2021",
+    rustlibs: [
+        "libandroid_logger",
+        "libanyhow",
+        "libclap",
+        "libcommand_fds",
+        "liblibc",
+        "liblog_rust",
+    ],
+    test_suites: ["general-tests"],
+}
diff --git a/authfs/tests/common/src/open_then_run.rs b/authfs/tests/common/src/open_then_run.rs
index 110d838..6d828e4 100644
--- a/authfs/tests/common/src/open_then_run.rs
+++ b/authfs/tests/common/src/open_then_run.rs
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@
 //! specified numbers in the child process.
 
 use anyhow::{bail, Context, Result};
-use clap::{App, Arg, Values};
+use clap::{parser::ValuesRef, Arg, ArgAction};
 use command_fds::{CommandFdExt, FdMapping};
 use log::{debug, error};
 use std::fs::OpenOptions;
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@
 }
 
 fn parse_and_create_file_mapping<F>(
-    values: Option<Values<'_>>,
+    values: Option<ValuesRef<'_, String>>,
     opener: F,
 ) -> Result<Vec<OwnedFdMapping>>
 where
@@ -75,35 +75,35 @@
     }
 }
 
-fn parse_args() -> Result<Args> {
-    #[rustfmt::skip]
-    let matches = App::new("open_then_run")
-        .arg(Arg::with_name("open-ro")
+#[rustfmt::skip]
+fn args_command() -> clap::Command {
+    clap::Command::new("open_then_run")
+        .arg(Arg::new("open-ro")
              .long("open-ro")
              .value_name("FD:PATH")
              .help("Open <PATH> read-only to pass as fd <FD>")
-             .multiple(true)
-             .number_of_values(1))
-        .arg(Arg::with_name("open-rw")
+             .action(ArgAction::Append))
+        .arg(Arg::new("open-rw")
              .long("open-rw")
              .value_name("FD:PATH")
              .help("Open/create <PATH> read-write to pass as fd <FD>")
-             .multiple(true)
-             .number_of_values(1))
-        .arg(Arg::with_name("open-dir")
+             .action(ArgAction::Append))
+        .arg(Arg::new("open-dir")
              .long("open-dir")
              .value_name("FD:DIR")
              .help("Open <DIR> to pass as fd <FD>")
-             .multiple(true)
-             .number_of_values(1))
-        .arg(Arg::with_name("args")
+             .action(ArgAction::Append))
+        .arg(Arg::new("args")
              .help("Command line to execute with pre-opened FD inherited")
              .last(true)
              .required(true)
-             .multiple(true))
-        .get_matches();
+             .num_args(0..))
+}
 
-    let ro_file_fds = parse_and_create_file_mapping(matches.values_of("open-ro"), |path| {
+fn parse_args() -> Result<Args> {
+    let matches = args_command().get_matches();
+
+    let ro_file_fds = parse_and_create_file_mapping(matches.get_many("open-ro"), |path| {
         Ok(OwnedFd::from(
             OpenOptions::new()
                 .read(true)
@@ -112,7 +112,7 @@
         ))
     })?;
 
-    let rw_file_fds = parse_and_create_file_mapping(matches.values_of("open-rw"), |path| {
+    let rw_file_fds = parse_and_create_file_mapping(matches.get_many("open-rw"), |path| {
         Ok(OwnedFd::from(
             OpenOptions::new()
                 .read(true)
@@ -123,7 +123,7 @@
         ))
     })?;
 
-    let dir_fds = parse_and_create_file_mapping(matches.values_of("open-dir"), |path| {
+    let dir_fds = parse_and_create_file_mapping(matches.get_many("open-dir"), |path| {
         Ok(OwnedFd::from(
             OpenOptions::new()
                 .custom_flags(libc::O_DIRECTORY)
@@ -133,7 +133,8 @@
         ))
     })?;
 
-    let cmdline_args: Vec<_> = matches.values_of("args").unwrap().map(|s| s.to_string()).collect();
+    let cmdline_args: Vec<_> =
+        matches.get_many::<String>("args").unwrap().map(|s| s.to_string()).collect();
 
     Ok(Args { ro_file_fds, rw_file_fds, dir_fds, cmdline_args })
 }
@@ -168,3 +169,14 @@
         std::process::exit(1);
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn verify_command() {
+        // Check that the command parsing has been configured in a valid way.
+        args_command().debug_assert();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/avmd/Android.bp b/avmd/Android.bp
index 0b87a7b..e5e0553 100644
--- a/avmd/Android.bp
+++ b/avmd/Android.bp
@@ -20,8 +20,8 @@
     defaults: ["libavmd_defaults"],
 }
 
-rust_binary {
-    name: "avmdtool",
+rust_defaults {
+    name: "avmdtool.defaults",
     srcs: ["src/main.rs"],
     host_supported: true,
     prefer_rlib: true,
@@ -37,6 +37,17 @@
     ],
 }
 
+rust_binary {
+    name: "avmdtool",
+    defaults: ["avmdtool.defaults"],
+}
+
+rust_test {
+    name: "avmdtool.test",
+    defaults: ["avmdtool.defaults"],
+    test_suites: ["general-tests"],
+}
+
 rust_test {
     name: "avmdtool_tests",
     srcs: ["tests/*_test.rs"],
diff --git a/avmd/TEST_MAPPING b/avmd/TEST_MAPPING
index ea58edb..892eb2c 100644
--- a/avmd/TEST_MAPPING
+++ b/avmd/TEST_MAPPING
@@ -1,7 +1,10 @@
 {
-  "avf-presubmit" : [
+  "avf-presubmit": [
     {
-      "name" : "avmdtool_tests"
+      "name": "avmdtool.test"
+    },
+    {
+      "name": "avmdtool_tests"
     }
   ]
 }
diff --git a/avmd/src/main.rs b/avmd/src/main.rs
index fc18225..740e9aa 100644
--- a/avmd/src/main.rs
+++ b/avmd/src/main.rs
@@ -18,9 +18,13 @@
 use apexutil::get_payload_vbmeta_image_hash;
 use apkverify::get_apk_digest;
 use avmd::{ApkDescriptor, Avmd, Descriptor, ResourceIdentifier, VbMetaDescriptor};
-use clap::{App, AppSettings, Arg, ArgMatches, SubCommand};
+use clap::{
+    builder::ValueParser,
+    parser::{Indices, ValuesRef},
+    Arg, ArgAction, ArgMatches, Command,
+};
 use serde::ser::Serialize;
-use std::fs::File;
+use std::{fs::File, path::PathBuf};
 use vbmeta::VbMetaImage;
 
 fn get_vbmeta_image_hash(file: &str) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
@@ -31,13 +35,13 @@
 /// Iterate over a set of argument values, that could be empty or come in
 /// (<index>, <namespace>, <name>, <file>) tuple.
 struct NamespaceNameFileIterator<'a> {
-    indices: Option<clap::Indices<'a>>,
-    values: Option<clap::Values<'a>>,
+    indices: Option<Indices<'a>>,
+    values: Option<ValuesRef<'a, String>>,
 }
 
 impl<'a> NamespaceNameFileIterator<'a> {
     fn new(args: &'a ArgMatches, name: &'a str) -> Self {
-        NamespaceNameFileIterator { indices: args.indices_of(name), values: args.values_of(name) }
+        NamespaceNameFileIterator { indices: args.indices_of(name), values: args.get_many(name) }
     }
 }
 
@@ -100,54 +104,58 @@
             .packed_format()
             .legacy_enums(),
     )?;
-    std::fs::write(args.value_of("file").unwrap(), &bytes)?;
+    std::fs::write(args.get_one::<PathBuf>("file").unwrap(), &bytes)?;
     Ok(())
 }
 
 fn dump(args: &ArgMatches) -> Result<()> {
-    let file = std::fs::read(args.value_of("file").unwrap())?;
+    let file = std::fs::read(args.get_one::<PathBuf>("file").unwrap())?;
     let avmd: Avmd = serde_cbor::from_slice(&file)?;
     println!("{}", avmd);
     Ok(())
 }
 
-fn main() -> Result<()> {
+fn clap_command() -> Command {
     let namespace_name_file = ["namespace", "name", "file"];
-    let app = App::new("avmdtool")
-        .setting(AppSettings::SubcommandRequiredElseHelp)
+
+    Command::new("avmdtool")
+        .subcommand_required(true)
+        .arg_required_else_help(true)
         .subcommand(
-            SubCommand::with_name("create")
-                .setting(AppSettings::ArgRequiredElseHelp)
-                .arg(Arg::with_name("file").required(true).takes_value(true))
+            Command::new("create")
+                .arg_required_else_help(true)
+                .arg(Arg::new("file").value_parser(ValueParser::path_buf()).required(true))
                 .arg(
-                    Arg::with_name("vbmeta")
+                    Arg::new("vbmeta")
                         .long("vbmeta")
-                        .takes_value(true)
                         .value_names(&namespace_name_file)
-                        .multiple(true),
+                        .num_args(3)
+                        .action(ArgAction::Append),
                 )
                 .arg(
-                    Arg::with_name("apk")
+                    Arg::new("apk")
                         .long("apk")
-                        .takes_value(true)
                         .value_names(&namespace_name_file)
-                        .multiple(true),
+                        .num_args(3)
+                        .action(ArgAction::Append),
                 )
                 .arg(
-                    Arg::with_name("apex-payload")
+                    Arg::new("apex-payload")
                         .long("apex-payload")
-                        .takes_value(true)
                         .value_names(&namespace_name_file)
-                        .multiple(true),
+                        .num_args(3)
+                        .action(ArgAction::Append),
                 ),
         )
         .subcommand(
-            SubCommand::with_name("dump")
-                .setting(AppSettings::ArgRequiredElseHelp)
-                .arg(Arg::with_name("file").required(true).takes_value(true)),
-        );
+            Command::new("dump")
+                .arg_required_else_help(true)
+                .arg(Arg::new("file").value_parser(ValueParser::path_buf()).required(true)),
+        )
+}
 
-    let args = app.get_matches();
+fn main() -> Result<()> {
+    let args = clap_command().get_matches();
     match args.subcommand() {
         Some(("create", sub_args)) => create(sub_args)?,
         Some(("dump", sub_args)) => dump(sub_args)?,
@@ -155,3 +163,14 @@
     }
     Ok(())
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn verify_command() {
+        // Check that the command parsing has been configured in a valid way.
+        clap_command().debug_assert();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/compos/common/compos_client.rs b/compos/common/compos_client.rs
index 34be1d5..f6811cb 100644
--- a/compos/common/compos_client.rs
+++ b/compos/common/compos_client.rs
@@ -222,10 +222,10 @@
         bail!("Protected VM not supported, unable to start VM");
     }
 
-    let have_unprotected_vm =
+    let have_non_protected_vm =
         system_properties::read_bool("ro.boot.hypervisor.vm.supported", false)?;
-    if have_unprotected_vm {
-        warn!("Protected VM not supported, falling back to unprotected on debuggable build");
+    if have_non_protected_vm {
+        warn!("Protected VM not supported, falling back to non-protected on debuggable build");
         return Ok(false);
     }
 
diff --git a/compos/composd_cmd/Android.bp b/compos/composd_cmd/Android.bp
index 61df328..54b0bad 100644
--- a/compos/composd_cmd/Android.bp
+++ b/compos/composd_cmd/Android.bp
@@ -18,3 +18,18 @@
         "com.android.compos",
     ],
 }
+
+rust_test {
+    name: "composd_cmd.test",
+    srcs: ["composd_cmd.rs"],
+    edition: "2021",
+    rustlibs: [
+        "android.system.composd-rust",
+        "libanyhow",
+        "libbinder_rs",
+        "libclap",
+        "libcompos_common",
+    ],
+    prefer_rlib: true,
+    test_suites: ["general-tests"],
+}
diff --git a/compos/composd_cmd/composd_cmd.rs b/compos/composd_cmd/composd_cmd.rs
index b6d82aa..19c3720 100644
--- a/compos/composd_cmd/composd_cmd.rs
+++ b/compos/composd_cmd/composd_cmd.rs
@@ -163,3 +163,15 @@
         }
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use clap::CommandFactory;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn verify_actions() {
+        // Check that the command parsing has been configured in a valid way.
+        Actions::command().debug_assert();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/compos/verify/Android.bp b/compos/verify/Android.bp
index f68cc1b..9e30b0d 100644
--- a/compos/verify/Android.bp
+++ b/compos/verify/Android.bp
@@ -22,3 +22,22 @@
         "com.android.compos",
     ],
 }
+
+rust_test {
+    name: "compos_verify.test",
+    srcs: ["verify.rs"],
+    edition: "2021",
+    rustlibs: [
+        "compos_aidl_interface-rust",
+        "libandroid_logger",
+        "libanyhow",
+        "libbinder_rs",
+        "libclap",
+        "libcompos_common",
+        "libcompos_verify_native_rust",
+        "liblog_rust",
+        "libvmclient",
+    ],
+    prefer_rlib: true,
+    test_suites: ["general-tests"],
+}
diff --git a/compos/verify/verify.rs b/compos/verify/verify.rs
index 745d5e9..71d8bcc 100644
--- a/compos/verify/verify.rs
+++ b/compos/verify/verify.rs
@@ -138,3 +138,15 @@
     file.read_to_end(&mut data)?;
     Ok(data)
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use clap::CommandFactory;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn verify_args() {
+        // Check that the command parsing has been configured in a valid way.
+        Args::command().debug_assert();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/encryptedstore/Android.bp b/encryptedstore/Android.bp
index 13ef1b9..94ebcfc 100644
--- a/encryptedstore/Android.bp
+++ b/encryptedstore/Android.bp
@@ -29,3 +29,9 @@
     defaults: ["encryptedstore.defaults"],
     bootstrap: true,
 }
+
+rust_test {
+    name: "encryptedstore.test",
+    defaults: ["encryptedstore.defaults"],
+    test_suites: ["general-tests"],
+}
diff --git a/encryptedstore/TEST_MAPPING b/encryptedstore/TEST_MAPPING
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a9e1d87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/encryptedstore/TEST_MAPPING
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+{
+  "avf-presubmit": [
+    {
+      "name": "encryptedstore.test"
+    }
+  ]
+}
diff --git a/encryptedstore/src/main.rs b/encryptedstore/src/main.rs
index 7140ae2..888485b 100644
--- a/encryptedstore/src/main.rs
+++ b/encryptedstore/src/main.rs
@@ -19,9 +19,8 @@
 //! It uses dm_rust lib.
 
 use anyhow::{ensure, Context, Result};
-use clap::{arg, App};
-use dm::crypt::CipherType;
-use dm::util;
+use clap::arg;
+use dm::{crypt::CipherType, util};
 use log::info;
 use std::ffi::CString;
 use std::fs::{create_dir_all, OpenOptions};
@@ -42,18 +41,11 @@
     );
     info!("Starting encryptedstore binary");
 
-    let matches = App::new("encryptedstore")
-        .args(&[
-            arg!(--blkdevice <FILE> "the block device backing the encrypted storage")
-                .required(true),
-            arg!(--key <KEY> "key (in hex) equivalent to 32 bytes)").required(true),
-            arg!(--mountpoint <MOUNTPOINT> "mount point for the storage").required(true),
-        ])
-        .get_matches();
+    let matches = clap_command().get_matches();
 
-    let blkdevice = Path::new(matches.value_of("blkdevice").unwrap());
-    let key = matches.value_of("key").unwrap();
-    let mountpoint = Path::new(matches.value_of("mountpoint").unwrap());
+    let blkdevice = Path::new(matches.get_one::<String>("blkdevice").unwrap());
+    let key = matches.get_one::<String>("key").unwrap();
+    let mountpoint = Path::new(matches.get_one::<String>("mountpoint").unwrap());
     encryptedstore_init(blkdevice, key, mountpoint).context(format!(
         "Unable to initialize encryptedstore on {:?} & mount at {:?}",
         blkdevice, mountpoint
@@ -61,6 +53,14 @@
     Ok(())
 }
 
+fn clap_command() -> clap::Command {
+    clap::Command::new("encryptedstore").args(&[
+        arg!(--blkdevice <FILE> "the block device backing the encrypted storage").required(true),
+        arg!(--key <KEY> "key (in hex) equivalent to 32 bytes)").required(true),
+        arg!(--mountpoint <MOUNTPOINT> "mount point for the storage").required(true),
+    ])
+}
+
 fn encryptedstore_init(blkdevice: &Path, key: &str, mountpoint: &Path) -> Result<()> {
     ensure!(
         std::fs::metadata(&blkdevice)
@@ -160,3 +160,14 @@
         Ok(())
     }
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn verify_command() {
+        // Check that the command parsing has been configured in a valid way.
+        clap_command().debug_assert();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualMachine.java b/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualMachine.java
index e319aa3..b57cb5e 100644
--- a/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualMachine.java
+++ b/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualMachine.java
@@ -192,9 +192,6 @@
     /** Name of the idsig files for extra APKs. */
     private static final String EXTRA_IDSIG_FILE_PREFIX = "extra_idsig_";
 
-    /** Name of the virtualization service. */
-    private static final String SERVICE_NAME = "android.system.virtualizationservice";
-
     /** Size of the instance image. 10 MB. */
     private static final long INSTANCE_FILE_SIZE = 10 * 1024 * 1024;
 
diff --git a/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualMachineConfig.java b/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualMachineConfig.java
index 0e9e86b..d9fc70c 100644
--- a/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualMachineConfig.java
+++ b/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualMachineConfig.java
@@ -352,6 +352,7 @@
      * that would alter the identity of the VM (e.g. using a different payload or changing the debug
      * mode) are considered incompatible.
      *
+     * @see VirtualMachine#setConfig
      * @hide
      */
     @SystemApi
@@ -536,6 +537,14 @@
         /**
          * Sets the debug level. Defaults to {@link #DEBUG_LEVEL_NONE}.
          *
+         * <p>If {@link #DEBUG_LEVEL_FULL} is set then logs from inside the VM are exported to the
+         * host and adb connections from the host are possible. This is convenient for debugging but
+         * may compromise the integrity of the VM - including bypassing the protections offered by a
+         * {@linkplain #setProtectedVm protected VM}.
+         *
+         * <p>Note that it isn't possible to {@linkplain #isCompatibleWith change} the debug level
+         * of a VM instance; debug and non-debug VMs always have different secrets.
+         *
          * @hide
          */
         @SystemApi
@@ -552,6 +561,13 @@
          * Sets whether to protect the VM memory from the host. No default is provided, this must be
          * set explicitly.
          *
+         * <p>Note that if debugging is {@linkplain #setDebugLevel enabled} for a protected VM, the
+         * VM is not truly protected - direct memory access by the host is prevented, but e.g. the
+         * debugger can be used to access the VM's internals.
+         *
+         * <p>It isn't possible to {@linkplain #isCompatibleWith change} the protected status of a
+         * VM instance; protected and non-protected VMs always have different secrets.
+         *
          * @see VirtualMachineManager#getCapabilities
          * @hide
          */
@@ -566,7 +582,7 @@
             } else {
                 if (!HypervisorProperties.hypervisor_vm_supported().orElse(false)) {
                     throw new UnsupportedOperationException(
-                            "Unprotected VMs are not supported on this device.");
+                            "Non-protected VMs are not supported on this device.");
                 }
             }
             mProtectedVm = protectedVm;
diff --git a/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualizationService.java b/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualizationService.java
index 75e359f..c3f2ba3 100644
--- a/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualizationService.java
+++ b/javalib/src/android/system/virtualmachine/VirtualizationService.java
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@
      * Client FD for UDS connection to virtmgr's RpcBinder server. Closing it
      * will make virtmgr shut down.
      */
-    private ParcelFileDescriptor mClientFd;
+    private final ParcelFileDescriptor mClientFd;
 
     private static native int nativeSpawn();
 
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@
         VirtualizationService service = (sInstance == null) ? null : sInstance.get();
         if (service == null || !service.isOk()) {
             service = new VirtualizationService();
-            sInstance = new WeakReference(service);
+            sInstance = new WeakReference<>(service);
         }
         return service;
     }
diff --git a/microdroid/Android.bp b/microdroid/Android.bp
index ecaadf8..1fc44a2 100644
--- a/microdroid/Android.bp
+++ b/microdroid/Android.bp
@@ -538,11 +538,51 @@
     srcs: ["bootconfig.normal"],
 }
 
+// python -c "import hashlib; print(hashlib.sha256(b'initrd_normal').hexdigest())"
+initrd_normal_salt = "8041a07d54ac82290f6d90bac1fa8d7fdbc4db974d101d60faf294749d1ebaf8"
+
+avb_gen_vbmeta_image {
+    name: "microdroid_initrd_normal_hashdesc",
+    src: ":microdroid_initrd_normal",
+    partition_name: "initrd_normal",
+    salt: initrd_normal_salt,
+    enabled: false,
+    arch: {
+        // Microdroid kernel is only available in these architectures.
+        arm64: {
+            enabled: true,
+        },
+        x86_64: {
+            enabled: true,
+        },
+    },
+}
+
+// python -c "import hashlib; print(hashlib.sha256(b'initrd_debug').hexdigest())"
+initrd_debug_salt = "8ab9dc9cb7e6456700ff6ef18c6b4c3acc24c5fa5381b829563f8d7a415d869a"
+
+avb_gen_vbmeta_image {
+    name: "microdroid_initrd_debug_hashdesc",
+    src: ":microdroid_initrd_debuggable",
+    partition_name: "initrd_debug",
+    salt: initrd_debug_salt,
+    enabled: false,
+    arch: {
+        // Microdroid kernel is only available in these architectures.
+        arm64: {
+            enabled: true,
+        },
+        x86_64: {
+            enabled: true,
+        },
+    },
+}
+
 avb_add_hash_footer {
     name: "microdroid_kernel_signed",
     src: "empty_kernel",
     filename: "microdroid_kernel",
-    partition_name: "bootloader",
+    partition_name: "boot",
     private_key: ":microdroid_sign_key",
     salt: bootloader_salt,
     enabled: false,
@@ -556,11 +596,9 @@
             enabled: true,
         },
     },
-    props: [
-        {
-            name: "trusted_ramdisk",
-            file: ":microdroid_initrd_hashes",
-        },
+    include_descriptors_from_images: [
+        ":microdroid_initrd_normal_hashdesc",
+        ":microdroid_initrd_debug_hashdesc",
     ],
 }
 
diff --git a/microdroid/init.rc b/microdroid/init.rc
index 7402481..bc42791 100644
--- a/microdroid/init.rc
+++ b/microdroid/init.rc
@@ -165,7 +165,6 @@
     class core
     critical
     seclabel u:r:ueventd:s0
-    shutdown critical
     capabilities CHOWN DAC_OVERRIDE DAC_READ_SEARCH FOWNER FSETID MKNOD NET_ADMIN SETGID SETUID SYS_MODULE SYS_RAWIO
 
 service console /system/bin/sh
diff --git a/microdroid/initrd/Android.bp b/microdroid/initrd/Android.bp
index d05ea86..7a95ce6 100644
--- a/microdroid/initrd/Android.bp
+++ b/microdroid/initrd/Android.bp
@@ -12,6 +12,17 @@
     prefer_rlib: true,
 }
 
+rust_test_host {
+    name: "initrd_bootconfig.test",
+    srcs: ["src/main.rs"],
+    rustlibs: [
+        "libanyhow",
+        "libclap",
+    ],
+    prefer_rlib: true,
+    test_suites: ["general-tests"],
+}
+
 python_binary_host {
     name: "gen_vbmeta_bootconfig",
     srcs: ["gen_vbmeta_bootconfig.py"],
@@ -122,28 +133,3 @@
     },
     filename: "microdroid_initrd_normal.img",
 }
-
-genrule {
-    name: "microdroid_initrd_normal.sha256",
-    srcs: [":microdroid_initrd_normal"],
-    cmd: "cat $(in) | sha256sum | cut -d' ' -f1 > $(out)",
-    out: ["hash"],
-}
-
-genrule {
-    name: "microdroid_initrd_debuggable.sha256",
-    srcs: [":microdroid_initrd_debuggable"],
-    cmd: "cat $(in) | sha256sum | cut -d' ' -f1 > $(out)",
-    out: ["hash"],
-}
-
-genrule {
-    name: "microdroid_initrd_hashes",
-    srcs: [
-        ":microdroid_initrd_normal.sha256",
-        ":microdroid_initrd_debuggable.sha256",
-    ],
-    // join the hashes with commas
-    cmd: "cat $(in) | tr '\n' ',' > $(out) && truncate -s -1 $(out)",
-    out: ["output"],
-}
diff --git a/microdroid/initrd/src/main.rs b/microdroid/initrd/src/main.rs
index 69c6ae4..74e4ba6 100644
--- a/microdroid/initrd/src/main.rs
+++ b/microdroid/initrd/src/main.rs
@@ -54,7 +54,8 @@
         checksum += get_checksum(&bootconfig)?;
     }
 
-    let padding_size: usize = FOOTER_ALIGNMENT - (initrd_size + bootconfig_size) % FOOTER_ALIGNMENT;
+    let padding_size: usize =
+        (FOOTER_ALIGNMENT - (initrd_size + bootconfig_size) % FOOTER_ALIGNMENT) % FOOTER_ALIGNMENT;
     output_file.write_all(&ZEROS[..padding_size])?;
     output_file.write_all(&((padding_size + bootconfig_size) as u32).to_le_bytes())?;
     output_file.write_all(&checksum.to_le_bytes())?;
@@ -72,3 +73,15 @@
 fn main() {
     try_main().unwrap()
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use clap::CommandFactory;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn verify_args() {
+        // Check that the command parsing has been configured in a valid way.
+        Args::command().debug_assert();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/pvmfw/avb/Android.bp b/pvmfw/avb/Android.bp
index 3026d20..d3a5e4e 100644
--- a/pvmfw/avb/Android.bp
+++ b/pvmfw/avb/Android.bp
@@ -32,6 +32,8 @@
         ":avb_testkey_rsa2048_pub_bin",
         ":avb_testkey_rsa4096_pub_bin",
         ":microdroid_kernel_signed",
+        ":microdroid_initrd_normal",
+        ":test_image_with_one_hashdesc",
         ":unsigned_test_image",
     ],
     rustlibs: [
@@ -56,3 +58,11 @@
     out: ["unsigned_test.img"],
     cmd: "$(location avbtool) generate_test_image --image_size 16384 --output $(out)",
 }
+
+avb_add_hash_footer {
+    name: "test_image_with_one_hashdesc",
+    src: ":unsigned_test_image",
+    partition_name: "boot",
+    private_key: ":pvmfw_sign_key",
+    salt: "1111",
+}
diff --git a/pvmfw/avb/src/error.rs b/pvmfw/avb/src/error.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8b06150
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pvmfw/avb/src/error.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+// Copyright 2022, The Android Open Source Project
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+//! This module contains the error thrown by the payload verification API.
+
+use avb_bindgen::AvbSlotVerifyResult;
+
+use core::fmt;
+
+/// This error is the error part of `AvbSlotVerifyResult`.
+/// It is the error thrown by the payload verification API `verify_payload()`.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum AvbSlotVerifyError {
+    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT
+    InvalidArgument,
+    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_INVALID_METADATA
+    InvalidMetadata,
+    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_IO
+    Io,
+    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_OOM
+    Oom,
+    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_PUBLIC_KEY_REJECTED
+    PublicKeyRejected,
+    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_ROLLBACK_INDEX
+    RollbackIndex,
+    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_UNSUPPORTED_VERSION
+    UnsupportedVersion,
+    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_VERIFICATION
+    Verification,
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for AvbSlotVerifyError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::InvalidArgument => write!(f, "Invalid parameters."),
+            Self::InvalidMetadata => write!(f, "Invalid metadata."),
+            Self::Io => write!(f, "I/O error while trying to load data or get a rollback index."),
+            Self::Oom => write!(f, "Unable to allocate memory."),
+            Self::PublicKeyRejected => write!(f, "Public key rejected or data not signed."),
+            Self::RollbackIndex => write!(f, "Rollback index is less than its stored value."),
+            Self::UnsupportedVersion => write!(
+                f,
+                "Some of the metadata requires a newer version of libavb than what is in use."
+            ),
+            Self::Verification => write!(f, "Data does not verify."),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn slot_verify_result_to_verify_payload_result(
+    result: AvbSlotVerifyResult,
+) -> Result<(), AvbSlotVerifyError> {
+    match result {
+        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_OK => Ok(()),
+        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT => {
+            Err(AvbSlotVerifyError::InvalidArgument)
+        }
+        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_INVALID_METADATA => {
+            Err(AvbSlotVerifyError::InvalidMetadata)
+        }
+        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_IO => Err(AvbSlotVerifyError::Io),
+        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_OOM => Err(AvbSlotVerifyError::Oom),
+        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_PUBLIC_KEY_REJECTED => {
+            Err(AvbSlotVerifyError::PublicKeyRejected)
+        }
+        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_ROLLBACK_INDEX => {
+            Err(AvbSlotVerifyError::RollbackIndex)
+        }
+        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_UNSUPPORTED_VERSION => {
+            Err(AvbSlotVerifyError::UnsupportedVersion)
+        }
+        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_VERIFICATION => {
+            Err(AvbSlotVerifyError::Verification)
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/pvmfw/avb/src/lib.rs b/pvmfw/avb/src/lib.rs
index 1f39076..6a5b16d 100644
--- a/pvmfw/avb/src/lib.rs
+++ b/pvmfw/avb/src/lib.rs
@@ -18,6 +18,8 @@
 // For usize.checked_add_signed(isize), available in Rust 1.66.0
 #![feature(mixed_integer_ops)]
 
+mod error;
 mod verify;
 
-pub use verify::{verify_payload, AvbImageVerifyError};
+pub use error::AvbSlotVerifyError;
+pub use verify::verify_payload;
diff --git a/pvmfw/avb/src/verify.rs b/pvmfw/avb/src/verify.rs
index f01c6b8..fb18626 100644
--- a/pvmfw/avb/src/verify.rs
+++ b/pvmfw/avb/src/verify.rs
@@ -14,81 +14,15 @@
 
 //! This module handles the pvmfw payload verification.
 
-use avb_bindgen::{
-    avb_slot_verify, AvbHashtreeErrorMode, AvbIOResult, AvbOps, AvbSlotVerifyFlags,
-    AvbSlotVerifyResult,
-};
+use crate::error::{slot_verify_result_to_verify_payload_result, AvbSlotVerifyError};
+use avb_bindgen::{avb_slot_verify, AvbHashtreeErrorMode, AvbIOResult, AvbOps, AvbSlotVerifyFlags};
 use core::{
     ffi::{c_char, c_void, CStr},
-    fmt,
     ptr::{self, NonNull},
     slice,
 };
 
-/// Error code from AVB image verification.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
-pub enum AvbImageVerifyError {
-    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT
-    InvalidArgument,
-    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_INVALID_METADATA
-    InvalidMetadata,
-    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_IO
-    Io,
-    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_OOM
-    Oom,
-    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_PUBLIC_KEY_REJECTED
-    PublicKeyRejected,
-    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_ROLLBACK_INDEX
-    RollbackIndex,
-    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_UNSUPPORTED_VERSION
-    UnsupportedVersion,
-    /// AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_VERIFICATION
-    Verification,
-}
-
-impl fmt::Display for AvbImageVerifyError {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
-        match self {
-            Self::InvalidArgument => write!(f, "Invalid parameters."),
-            Self::InvalidMetadata => write!(f, "Invalid metadata."),
-            Self::Io => write!(f, "I/O error while trying to load data or get a rollback index."),
-            Self::Oom => write!(f, "Unable to allocate memory."),
-            Self::PublicKeyRejected => write!(f, "Public key rejected or data not signed."),
-            Self::RollbackIndex => write!(f, "Rollback index is less than its stored value."),
-            Self::UnsupportedVersion => write!(
-                f,
-                "Some of the metadata requires a newer version of libavb than what is in use."
-            ),
-            Self::Verification => write!(f, "Data does not verify."),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-fn to_avb_verify_result(result: AvbSlotVerifyResult) -> Result<(), AvbImageVerifyError> {
-    match result {
-        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_OK => Ok(()),
-        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT => {
-            Err(AvbImageVerifyError::InvalidArgument)
-        }
-        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_INVALID_METADATA => {
-            Err(AvbImageVerifyError::InvalidMetadata)
-        }
-        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_IO => Err(AvbImageVerifyError::Io),
-        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_OOM => Err(AvbImageVerifyError::Oom),
-        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_PUBLIC_KEY_REJECTED => {
-            Err(AvbImageVerifyError::PublicKeyRejected)
-        }
-        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_ROLLBACK_INDEX => {
-            Err(AvbImageVerifyError::RollbackIndex)
-        }
-        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_UNSUPPORTED_VERSION => {
-            Err(AvbImageVerifyError::UnsupportedVersion)
-        }
-        AvbSlotVerifyResult::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_RESULT_ERROR_VERIFICATION => {
-            Err(AvbImageVerifyError::Verification)
-        }
-    }
-}
+static NULL_BYTE: &[u8] = b"\0";
 
 enum AvbIOError {
     /// AVB_IO_RESULT_ERROR_OOM,
@@ -167,7 +101,7 @@
     out_pointer: *mut *mut u8,
     out_num_bytes_preloaded: *mut usize,
 ) -> Result<(), AvbIOError> {
-    let ops = as_avbops_ref(ops)?;
+    let ops = as_ref(ops)?;
     let partition = ops.as_ref().get_partition(partition)?;
     let out_pointer = to_nonnull(out_pointer)?;
     // SAFETY: It is safe as the raw pointer `out_pointer` is a nonnull pointer.
@@ -209,7 +143,7 @@
     buffer: *mut c_void,
     out_num_read: *mut usize,
 ) -> Result<(), AvbIOError> {
-    let ops = as_avbops_ref(ops)?;
+    let ops = as_ref(ops)?;
     let partition = ops.as_ref().get_partition(partition)?;
     let buffer = to_nonnull(buffer)?;
     // SAFETY: It is safe to copy the requested number of bytes to `buffer` as `buffer`
@@ -251,7 +185,7 @@
     partition: *const c_char,
     out_size_num_bytes: *mut u64,
 ) -> Result<(), AvbIOError> {
-    let ops = as_avbops_ref(ops)?;
+    let ops = as_ref(ops)?;
     let partition = ops.as_ref().get_partition(partition)?;
     let partition_size =
         u64::try_from(partition.len()).map_err(|_| AvbIOError::InvalidValueSize)?;
@@ -322,7 +256,7 @@
     // `public_key_data` is a valid pointer and it points to an array of length
     // `public_key_length`.
     let public_key = unsafe { slice::from_raw_parts(public_key_data, public_key_length) };
-    let ops = as_avbops_ref(ops)?;
+    let ops = as_ref(ops)?;
     // Verifies the public key for the known partitions only.
     ops.as_ref().get_partition(partition)?;
     let trusted_public_key = ops.as_ref().trusted_public_key;
@@ -334,14 +268,14 @@
     Ok(())
 }
 
-fn as_avbops_ref<'a>(ops: *mut AvbOps) -> Result<&'a AvbOps, AvbIOError> {
-    let ops = to_nonnull(ops)?;
-    // SAFETY: It is safe as the raw pointer `ops` is a nonnull pointer.
-    unsafe { Ok(ops.as_ref()) }
+fn as_ref<'a, T>(ptr: *mut T) -> Result<&'a T, AvbIOError> {
+    let ptr = to_nonnull(ptr)?;
+    // SAFETY: It is safe as the raw pointer `ptr` is a nonnull pointer.
+    unsafe { Ok(ptr.as_ref()) }
 }
 
-fn to_nonnull<T>(p: *mut T) -> Result<NonNull<T>, AvbIOError> {
-    NonNull::new(p).ok_or(AvbIOError::NoSuchValue)
+fn to_nonnull<T>(ptr: *mut T) -> Result<NonNull<T>, AvbIOError> {
+    NonNull::new(ptr).ok_or(AvbIOError::NoSuchValue)
 }
 
 fn is_not_null<T>(ptr: *const T) -> Result<(), AvbIOError> {
@@ -352,8 +286,44 @@
     }
 }
 
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum PartitionName {
+    Kernel,
+    InitrdNormal,
+    InitrdDebug,
+}
+
+impl PartitionName {
+    const KERNEL_PARTITION_NAME: &[u8] = b"boot\0";
+    const INITRD_NORMAL_PARTITION_NAME: &[u8] = b"initrd_normal\0";
+    const INITRD_DEBUG_PARTITION_NAME: &[u8] = b"initrd_debug\0";
+
+    fn as_cstr(&self) -> &CStr {
+        let partition_name = match self {
+            Self::Kernel => Self::KERNEL_PARTITION_NAME,
+            Self::InitrdNormal => Self::INITRD_NORMAL_PARTITION_NAME,
+            Self::InitrdDebug => Self::INITRD_DEBUG_PARTITION_NAME,
+        };
+        CStr::from_bytes_with_nul(partition_name).unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<&CStr> for PartitionName {
+    type Error = AvbIOError;
+
+    fn try_from(partition_name: &CStr) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match partition_name.to_bytes_with_nul() {
+            Self::KERNEL_PARTITION_NAME => Ok(Self::Kernel),
+            Self::INITRD_NORMAL_PARTITION_NAME => Ok(Self::InitrdNormal),
+            Self::INITRD_DEBUG_PARTITION_NAME => Ok(Self::InitrdDebug),
+            _ => Err(AvbIOError::NoSuchPartition),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 struct Payload<'a> {
     kernel: &'a [u8],
+    initrd: Option<&'a [u8]>,
     trusted_public_key: &'a [u8],
 }
 
@@ -369,63 +339,76 @@
 }
 
 impl<'a> Payload<'a> {
-    const KERNEL_PARTITION_NAME: &[u8] = b"bootloader\0";
-
-    fn kernel_partition_name(&self) -> &CStr {
-        CStr::from_bytes_with_nul(Self::KERNEL_PARTITION_NAME).unwrap()
-    }
+    const MAX_NUM_OF_HASH_DESCRIPTORS: usize = 3;
 
     fn get_partition(&self, partition_name: *const c_char) -> Result<&[u8], AvbIOError> {
         is_not_null(partition_name)?;
         // SAFETY: It is safe as the raw pointer `partition_name` is a nonnull pointer.
         let partition_name = unsafe { CStr::from_ptr(partition_name) };
-        match partition_name.to_bytes_with_nul() {
-            Self::KERNEL_PARTITION_NAME => Ok(self.kernel),
-            _ => Err(AvbIOError::NoSuchPartition),
+        match partition_name.try_into()? {
+            PartitionName::Kernel => Ok(self.kernel),
+            PartitionName::InitrdNormal | PartitionName::InitrdDebug => {
+                self.initrd.ok_or(AvbIOError::NoSuchPartition)
+            }
         }
     }
+
+    fn verify_partitions(&mut self, partition_names: &[&CStr]) -> Result<(), AvbSlotVerifyError> {
+        if partition_names.len() > Self::MAX_NUM_OF_HASH_DESCRIPTORS {
+            return Err(AvbSlotVerifyError::InvalidArgument);
+        }
+        let mut requested_partitions = [ptr::null(); Self::MAX_NUM_OF_HASH_DESCRIPTORS + 1];
+        partition_names
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .for_each(|(i, name)| requested_partitions[i] = name.as_ptr());
+
+        let mut avb_ops = AvbOps {
+            user_data: self as *mut _ as *mut c_void,
+            ab_ops: ptr::null_mut(),
+            atx_ops: ptr::null_mut(),
+            read_from_partition: Some(read_from_partition),
+            get_preloaded_partition: Some(get_preloaded_partition),
+            write_to_partition: None,
+            validate_vbmeta_public_key: None,
+            read_rollback_index: Some(read_rollback_index),
+            write_rollback_index: None,
+            read_is_device_unlocked: Some(read_is_device_unlocked),
+            get_unique_guid_for_partition: Some(get_unique_guid_for_partition),
+            get_size_of_partition: Some(get_size_of_partition),
+            read_persistent_value: None,
+            write_persistent_value: None,
+            validate_public_key_for_partition: Some(validate_public_key_for_partition),
+        };
+        let ab_suffix = CStr::from_bytes_with_nul(NULL_BYTE).unwrap();
+        let out_data = ptr::null_mut();
+        // SAFETY: It is safe to call `avb_slot_verify()` as the pointer arguments (`ops`,
+        // `requested_partitions` and `ab_suffix`) passed to the method are all valid and
+        // initialized. The last argument `out_data` is allowed to be null so that nothing
+        // will be written to it.
+        let result = unsafe {
+            avb_slot_verify(
+                &mut avb_ops,
+                requested_partitions.as_ptr(),
+                ab_suffix.as_ptr(),
+                AvbSlotVerifyFlags::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_FLAGS_NO_VBMETA_PARTITION,
+                AvbHashtreeErrorMode::AVB_HASHTREE_ERROR_MODE_RESTART_AND_INVALIDATE,
+                out_data,
+            )
+        };
+        slot_verify_result_to_verify_payload_result(result)
+    }
 }
 
 /// Verifies the payload (signed kernel + initrd) against the trusted public key.
-pub fn verify_payload(kernel: &[u8], trusted_public_key: &[u8]) -> Result<(), AvbImageVerifyError> {
-    let mut payload = Payload { kernel, trusted_public_key };
-    let mut avb_ops = AvbOps {
-        user_data: &mut payload as *mut _ as *mut c_void,
-        ab_ops: ptr::null_mut(),
-        atx_ops: ptr::null_mut(),
-        read_from_partition: Some(read_from_partition),
-        get_preloaded_partition: Some(get_preloaded_partition),
-        write_to_partition: None,
-        validate_vbmeta_public_key: None,
-        read_rollback_index: Some(read_rollback_index),
-        write_rollback_index: None,
-        read_is_device_unlocked: Some(read_is_device_unlocked),
-        get_unique_guid_for_partition: Some(get_unique_guid_for_partition),
-        get_size_of_partition: Some(get_size_of_partition),
-        read_persistent_value: None,
-        write_persistent_value: None,
-        validate_public_key_for_partition: Some(validate_public_key_for_partition),
-    };
-    // NULL is needed to mark the end of the array.
-    let requested_partitions: [*const c_char; 2] =
-        [payload.kernel_partition_name().as_ptr(), ptr::null()];
-    let ab_suffix = CStr::from_bytes_with_nul(b"\0").unwrap();
-
-    // SAFETY: It is safe to call `avb_slot_verify()` as the pointer arguments (`ops`,
-    // `requested_partitions` and `ab_suffix`) passed to the method are all valid and
-    // initialized. The last argument `out_data` is allowed to be null so that nothing
-    // will be written to it.
-    let result = unsafe {
-        avb_slot_verify(
-            &mut avb_ops,
-            requested_partitions.as_ptr(),
-            ab_suffix.as_ptr(),
-            AvbSlotVerifyFlags::AVB_SLOT_VERIFY_FLAGS_NO_VBMETA_PARTITION,
-            AvbHashtreeErrorMode::AVB_HASHTREE_ERROR_MODE_RESTART_AND_INVALIDATE,
-            /*out_data=*/ ptr::null_mut(),
-        )
-    };
-    to_avb_verify_result(result)
+pub fn verify_payload(
+    kernel: &[u8],
+    initrd: Option<&[u8]>,
+    trusted_public_key: &[u8],
+) -> Result<(), AvbSlotVerifyError> {
+    let mut payload = Payload { kernel, initrd, trusted_public_key };
+    let requested_partitions = [PartitionName::Kernel.as_cstr()];
+    payload.verify_partitions(&requested_partitions)
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -435,6 +418,11 @@
     use avb_bindgen::AvbFooter;
     use std::{fs, mem::size_of};
 
+    const MICRODROID_KERNEL_IMG_PATH: &str = "microdroid_kernel";
+    const INITRD_NORMAL_IMG_PATH: &str = "microdroid_initrd_normal.img";
+    const TEST_IMG_WITH_ONE_HASHDESC_PATH: &str = "test_image_with_one_hashdesc.img";
+    const UNSIGNED_TEST_IMG_PATH: &str = "unsigned_test.img";
+
     const PUBLIC_KEY_RSA2048_PATH: &str = "data/testkey_rsa2048_pub.bin";
     const PUBLIC_KEY_RSA4096_PATH: &str = "data/testkey_rsa4096_pub.bin";
     const RANDOM_FOOTER_POS: usize = 30;
@@ -442,20 +430,34 @@
     /// This test uses the Microdroid payload compiled on the fly to check that
     /// the latest payload can be verified successfully.
     #[test]
-    fn latest_valid_payload_is_verified_successfully() -> Result<()> {
+    fn latest_valid_payload_passes_verification() -> Result<()> {
         let kernel = load_latest_signed_kernel()?;
+        let initrd_normal = fs::read(INITRD_NORMAL_IMG_PATH)?;
         let public_key = fs::read(PUBLIC_KEY_RSA4096_PATH)?;
 
-        assert_eq!(Ok(()), verify_payload(&kernel, &public_key));
+        assert_eq!(Ok(()), verify_payload(&kernel, Some(&initrd_normal[..]), &public_key));
         Ok(())
     }
 
     #[test]
+    fn payload_expecting_no_initrd_passes_verification_with_no_initrd() -> Result<()> {
+        let kernel = fs::read(TEST_IMG_WITH_ONE_HASHDESC_PATH)?;
+        let public_key = fs::read(PUBLIC_KEY_RSA4096_PATH)?;
+
+        assert_eq!(Ok(()), verify_payload(&kernel, None, &public_key));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    // TODO(b/256148034): Test that kernel with two hashdesc and no initrd fails verification.
+    // e.g. payload_expecting_initrd_fails_verification_with_no_initrd
+
+    #[test]
     fn payload_with_empty_public_key_fails_verification() -> Result<()> {
         assert_payload_verification_fails(
             &load_latest_signed_kernel()?,
+            &load_latest_initrd_normal()?,
             /*trusted_public_key=*/ &[0u8; 0],
-            AvbImageVerifyError::PublicKeyRejected,
+            AvbSlotVerifyError::PublicKeyRejected,
         )
     }
 
@@ -463,8 +465,9 @@
     fn payload_with_an_invalid_public_key_fails_verification() -> Result<()> {
         assert_payload_verification_fails(
             &load_latest_signed_kernel()?,
+            &load_latest_initrd_normal()?,
             /*trusted_public_key=*/ &[0u8; 512],
-            AvbImageVerifyError::PublicKeyRejected,
+            AvbSlotVerifyError::PublicKeyRejected,
         )
     }
 
@@ -472,17 +475,19 @@
     fn payload_with_a_different_valid_public_key_fails_verification() -> Result<()> {
         assert_payload_verification_fails(
             &load_latest_signed_kernel()?,
+            &load_latest_initrd_normal()?,
             &fs::read(PUBLIC_KEY_RSA2048_PATH)?,
-            AvbImageVerifyError::PublicKeyRejected,
+            AvbSlotVerifyError::PublicKeyRejected,
         )
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn unsigned_kernel_fails_verification() -> Result<()> {
         assert_payload_verification_fails(
-            &fs::read("unsigned_test.img")?,
+            &fs::read(UNSIGNED_TEST_IMG_PATH)?,
+            &load_latest_initrd_normal()?,
             &fs::read(PUBLIC_KEY_RSA4096_PATH)?,
-            AvbImageVerifyError::Io,
+            AvbSlotVerifyError::Io,
         )
     }
 
@@ -493,8 +498,9 @@
 
         assert_payload_verification_fails(
             &kernel,
+            &load_latest_initrd_normal()?,
             &fs::read(PUBLIC_KEY_RSA4096_PATH)?,
-            AvbImageVerifyError::Verification,
+            AvbSlotVerifyError::Verification,
         )
     }
 
@@ -506,21 +512,27 @@
 
         assert_payload_verification_fails(
             &kernel,
+            &load_latest_initrd_normal()?,
             &fs::read(PUBLIC_KEY_RSA4096_PATH)?,
-            AvbImageVerifyError::InvalidMetadata,
+            AvbSlotVerifyError::InvalidMetadata,
         )
     }
 
     fn assert_payload_verification_fails(
         kernel: &[u8],
+        initrd: &[u8],
         trusted_public_key: &[u8],
-        expected_error: AvbImageVerifyError,
+        expected_error: AvbSlotVerifyError,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        assert_eq!(Err(expected_error), verify_payload(kernel, trusted_public_key));
+        assert_eq!(Err(expected_error), verify_payload(kernel, Some(initrd), trusted_public_key));
         Ok(())
     }
 
     fn load_latest_signed_kernel() -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
-        Ok(fs::read("microdroid_kernel")?)
+        Ok(fs::read(MICRODROID_KERNEL_IMG_PATH)?)
+    }
+
+    fn load_latest_initrd_normal() -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+        Ok(fs::read(INITRD_NORMAL_IMG_PATH)?)
     }
 }
diff --git a/pvmfw/src/main.rs b/pvmfw/src/main.rs
index 9c62e03..d0fdd5a 100644
--- a/pvmfw/src/main.rs
+++ b/pvmfw/src/main.rs
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@
     let mut pci_root = unsafe { pci_info.make_pci_root() };
     find_virtio_devices(&mut pci_root).map_err(handle_pci_error)?;
 
-    verify_payload(signed_kernel, PUBLIC_KEY).map_err(|e| {
+    verify_payload(signed_kernel, ramdisk, PUBLIC_KEY).map_err(|e| {
         error!("Failed to verify the payload: {e}");
         RebootReason::PayloadVerificationError
     })?;
diff --git a/rialto/tests/test.rs b/rialto/tests/test.rs
index 0447cd3..b25034f 100644
--- a/rialto/tests/test.rs
+++ b/rialto/tests/test.rs
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@
 
 const RIALTO_PATH: &str = "/data/local/tmp/rialto_test/arm64/rialto.bin";
 
-/// Runs the Rialto VM as an unprotected VM via VirtualizationService.
+/// Runs the Rialto VM as a non-protected VM via VirtualizationService.
 #[test]
 fn test_boots() -> Result<(), Error> {
     android_logger::init_once(
diff --git a/tests/hostside/java/com/android/microdroid/test/MicrodroidHostTests.java b/tests/hostside/java/com/android/microdroid/test/MicrodroidHostTests.java
index 617c300..2ee33e6 100644
--- a/tests/hostside/java/com/android/microdroid/test/MicrodroidHostTests.java
+++ b/tests/hostside/java/com/android/microdroid/test/MicrodroidHostTests.java
@@ -652,6 +652,8 @@
     @Test
     @CddTest(requirements = {"9.17/C-1-1", "9.17/C-1-2", "9.17/C/1-3"})
     public void testMicrodroidBoots() throws Exception {
+        CommandRunner android = new CommandRunner(getDevice());
+
         final String configPath = "assets/vm_config.json"; // path inside the APK
         mMicrodroidDevice =
                 MicrodroidBuilder.fromDevicePath(getPathForPackage(PACKAGE_NAME), configPath)
@@ -662,6 +664,9 @@
         mMicrodroidDevice.waitForBootComplete(BOOT_COMPLETE_TIMEOUT);
         CommandRunner microdroid = new CommandRunner(mMicrodroidDevice);
 
+        String vmList = android.run("/apex/com.android.virt/bin/vm list");
+        assertThat(vmList).contains("requesterUid: " + android.run("id -u"));
+
         // Test writing to /data partition
         microdroid.run("echo MicrodroidTest > /data/local/tmp/test.txt");
         assertThat(microdroid.run("cat /data/local/tmp/test.txt")).isEqualTo("MicrodroidTest");
@@ -680,7 +685,6 @@
         assertThat(abis).hasLength(1);
 
         // Check that no denials have happened so far
-        CommandRunner android = new CommandRunner(getDevice());
         assertThat(android.tryRun("egrep", "'avc:[[:space:]]{1,2}denied'", LOG_PATH)).isNull();
         assertThat(android.tryRun("egrep", "'avc:[[:space:]]{1,2}denied'", CONSOLE_PATH)).isNull();
 
diff --git a/tests/testapk/src/java/com/android/microdroid/test/MicrodroidTests.java b/tests/testapk/src/java/com/android/microdroid/test/MicrodroidTests.java
index 43d822b..d8e74f7 100644
--- a/tests/testapk/src/java/com/android/microdroid/test/MicrodroidTests.java
+++ b/tests/testapk/src/java/com/android/microdroid/test/MicrodroidTests.java
@@ -394,37 +394,43 @@
         assertThat(e).hasMessageThat().contains("setProtectedVm must be called");
     }
 
+    private VirtualMachineConfig.Builder newBaselineBuilder() {
+        return newVmConfigBuilder().setPayloadBinaryName("binary.so").setApkPath("/apk/path");
+    }
+
     @Test
     @CddTest(requirements = {"9.17/C-1-1"})
     public void compatibleConfigTests() throws Exception {
         int maxCpus = Runtime.getRuntime().availableProcessors();
 
-        VirtualMachineConfig.Builder builder =
-                newVmConfigBuilder().setPayloadBinaryName("binary.so").setApkPath("/apk/path");
-        VirtualMachineConfig baseline = builder.build();
+        VirtualMachineConfig baseline = newBaselineBuilder().build();
 
         // A config must be compatible with itself
-        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, builder).isTrue();
+        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, newBaselineBuilder()).isTrue();
 
         // Changes that must always be compatible
-        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, builder.setMemoryMib(99)).isTrue();
+        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, newBaselineBuilder().setMemoryMib(99)).isTrue();
         if (maxCpus > 1) {
-            assertConfigCompatible(baseline, builder.setNumCpus(2)).isTrue();
+            assertConfigCompatible(baseline, newBaselineBuilder().setNumCpus(2)).isTrue();
         }
 
         // Changes that must be incompatible, since they must change the VM identity.
-        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, builder.setDebugLevel(DEBUG_LEVEL_FULL)).isFalse();
-        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, builder.setPayloadBinaryName("different")).isFalse();
+        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, newBaselineBuilder().setDebugLevel(DEBUG_LEVEL_FULL))
+                .isFalse();
+        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, newBaselineBuilder().setPayloadBinaryName("different"))
+                .isFalse();
         int capabilities = getVirtualMachineManager().getCapabilities();
         if ((capabilities & CAPABILITY_PROTECTED_VM) != 0
                 && (capabilities & CAPABILITY_NON_PROTECTED_VM) != 0) {
-            assertConfigCompatible(baseline, builder.setProtectedVm(!isProtectedVm())).isFalse();
+            assertConfigCompatible(baseline, newBaselineBuilder().setProtectedVm(!isProtectedVm()))
+                    .isFalse();
         }
 
         // Changes that are currently incompatible for ease of implementation, but this might change
         // in the future.
-        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, builder.setApkPath("/different")).isFalse();
-        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, builder.setEncryptedStorageKib(100)).isFalse();
+        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, newBaselineBuilder().setApkPath("/different")).isFalse();
+        assertConfigCompatible(baseline, newBaselineBuilder().setEncryptedStorageKib(100))
+                .isFalse();
     }
 
     private BooleanSubject assertConfigCompatible(
diff --git a/virtualizationservice/aidl/Android.bp b/virtualizationservice/aidl/Android.bp
index f028c0f..91d91aa 100644
--- a/virtualizationservice/aidl/Android.bp
+++ b/virtualizationservice/aidl/Android.bp
@@ -36,7 +36,10 @@
 aidl_interface {
     name: "android.system.virtualizationservice_internal",
     srcs: ["android/system/virtualizationservice_internal/**/*.aidl"],
-    imports: ["android.system.virtualizationcommon"],
+    imports: [
+        "android.system.virtualizationcommon",
+        "android.system.virtualizationservice",
+    ],
     unstable: true,
     backend: {
         java: {
diff --git a/virtualizationservice/aidl/android/system/virtualizationservice/VirtualMachineDebugInfo.aidl b/virtualizationservice/aidl/android/system/virtualizationservice/VirtualMachineDebugInfo.aidl
index 424eec1..870a342 100644
--- a/virtualizationservice/aidl/android/system/virtualizationservice/VirtualMachineDebugInfo.aidl
+++ b/virtualizationservice/aidl/android/system/virtualizationservice/VirtualMachineDebugInfo.aidl
@@ -33,7 +33,4 @@
      * the PID may have been reused for a different process, so this should not be trusted.
      */
     int requesterPid;
-
-    /** The current lifecycle state of the VM. */
-    VirtualMachineState state = VirtualMachineState.NOT_STARTED;
 }
diff --git a/virtualizationservice/aidl/android/system/virtualizationservice_internal/IVirtualizationServiceInternal.aidl b/virtualizationservice/aidl/android/system/virtualizationservice_internal/IVirtualizationServiceInternal.aidl
index d6b3536..5422a48 100644
--- a/virtualizationservice/aidl/android/system/virtualizationservice_internal/IVirtualizationServiceInternal.aidl
+++ b/virtualizationservice/aidl/android/system/virtualizationservice_internal/IVirtualizationServiceInternal.aidl
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
  */
 package android.system.virtualizationservice_internal;
 
+import android.system.virtualizationservice.VirtualMachineDebugInfo;
 import android.system.virtualizationservice_internal.AtomVmBooted;
 import android.system.virtualizationservice_internal.AtomVmCreationRequested;
 import android.system.virtualizationservice_internal.AtomVmExited;
@@ -35,7 +36,7 @@
      * The resources will not be recycled as long as there is a strong reference
      * to the returned object.
      */
-    IGlobalVmContext allocateGlobalVmContext();
+    IGlobalVmContext allocateGlobalVmContext(int requesterDebugPid);
 
     /** Forwards a VmBooted atom to statsd. */
     void atomVmBooted(in AtomVmBooted atom);
@@ -45,4 +46,7 @@
 
     /** Forwards a VmExited atom to statsd. */
     void atomVmExited(in AtomVmExited atom);
+
+    /** Get a list of all currently running VMs. */
+    VirtualMachineDebugInfo[] debugListVms();
 }
diff --git a/virtualizationservice/src/aidl.rs b/virtualizationservice/src/aidl.rs
index 0859a76..1c82155 100644
--- a/virtualizationservice/src/aidl.rs
+++ b/virtualizationservice/src/aidl.rs
@@ -74,6 +74,7 @@
 use std::num::NonZeroU32;
 use std::os::unix::fs::PermissionsExt;
 use std::os::unix::io::{FromRawFd, IntoRawFd};
+use std::os::unix::raw::{pid_t, uid_t};
 use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
 use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex, Weak};
 use tombstoned_client::{DebuggerdDumpType, TombstonedConnection};
@@ -123,15 +124,6 @@
     (GUEST_CID_MIN..=GUEST_CID_MAX).contains(&cid)
 }
 
-fn next_guest_cid(cid: Cid) -> Cid {
-    assert!(is_valid_guest_cid(cid));
-    if cid == GUEST_CID_MAX {
-        GUEST_CID_MIN
-    } else {
-        cid + 1
-    }
-}
-
 fn create_or_update_idsig_file(
     input_fd: &ParcelFileDescriptor,
     idsig_fd: &ParcelFileDescriptor,
@@ -197,10 +189,14 @@
         }
     }
 
-    fn allocateGlobalVmContext(&self) -> binder::Result<Strong<dyn IGlobalVmContext>> {
-        let client_uid = Uid::from_raw(get_calling_uid());
+    fn allocateGlobalVmContext(
+        &self,
+        requester_debug_pid: i32,
+    ) -> binder::Result<Strong<dyn IGlobalVmContext>> {
+        let requester_uid = get_calling_uid();
+        let requester_debug_pid = requester_debug_pid as pid_t;
         let state = &mut *self.state.lock().unwrap();
-        state.allocate_vm_context(client_uid).map_err(|e| {
+        state.allocate_vm_context(requester_uid, requester_debug_pid).map_err(|e| {
             Status::new_exception_str(ExceptionCode::ILLEGAL_STATE, Some(e.to_string()))
         })
     }
@@ -219,25 +215,55 @@
         forward_vm_exited_atom(atom);
         Ok(())
     }
+
+    fn debugListVms(&self) -> binder::Result<Vec<VirtualMachineDebugInfo>> {
+        let state = &mut *self.state.lock().unwrap();
+        let cids = state
+            .held_contexts
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|(_, inst)| Weak::upgrade(inst))
+            .map(|vm| VirtualMachineDebugInfo {
+                cid: vm.cid as i32,
+                temporaryDirectory: vm.get_temp_dir().to_string_lossy().to_string(),
+                requesterUid: vm.requester_uid as i32,
+                requesterPid: vm.requester_debug_pid as i32,
+            })
+            .collect();
+        Ok(cids)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct GlobalVmInstance {
+    /// The unique CID assigned to the VM for vsock communication.
+    cid: Cid,
+    /// UID of the client who requested this VM instance.
+    requester_uid: uid_t,
+    /// PID of the client who requested this VM instance.
+    requester_debug_pid: pid_t,
+}
+
+impl GlobalVmInstance {
+    fn get_temp_dir(&self) -> PathBuf {
+        let cid = self.cid;
+        format!("{TEMPORARY_DIRECTORY}/{cid}").into()
+    }
 }
 
 /// The mutable state of the VirtualizationServiceInternal. There should only be one instance
 /// of this struct.
 #[derive(Debug, Default)]
 struct GlobalState {
-    /// CIDs currently allocated to running VMs. A CID is never recycled as long
+    /// VM contexts currently allocated to running VMs. A CID is never recycled as long
     /// as there is a strong reference held by a GlobalVmContext.
-    held_cids: HashMap<Cid, Weak<Cid>>,
+    held_contexts: HashMap<Cid, Weak<GlobalVmInstance>>,
 }
 
 impl GlobalState {
     /// Get the next available CID, or an error if we have run out. The last CID used is stored in
     /// a system property so that restart of virtualizationservice doesn't reuse CID while the host
     /// Android is up.
-    fn allocate_cid(&mut self) -> Result<Arc<Cid>> {
-        // Garbage collect unused CIDs.
-        self.held_cids.retain(|_, cid| cid.strong_count() > 0);
-
+    fn get_next_available_cid(&mut self) -> Result<Cid> {
         // Start trying to find a CID from the last used CID + 1. This ensures
         // that we do not eagerly recycle CIDs. It makes debugging easier but
         // also means that retrying to allocate a CID, eg. because it is
@@ -259,55 +285,62 @@
             });
 
         let first_cid = if let Some(last_cid) = last_cid_prop {
-            next_guest_cid(last_cid)
+            if last_cid == GUEST_CID_MAX {
+                GUEST_CID_MIN
+            } else {
+                last_cid + 1
+            }
         } else {
             GUEST_CID_MIN
         };
 
         let cid = self
             .find_available_cid(first_cid..=GUEST_CID_MAX)
-            .or_else(|| self.find_available_cid(GUEST_CID_MIN..first_cid));
+            .or_else(|| self.find_available_cid(GUEST_CID_MIN..first_cid))
+            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!("Could not find an available CID."))?;
 
-        if let Some(cid) = cid {
-            let cid_arc = Arc::new(cid);
-            self.held_cids.insert(cid, Arc::downgrade(&cid_arc));
-            system_properties::write(SYSPROP_LAST_CID, &format!("{}", cid))?;
-            Ok(cid_arc)
-        } else {
-            Err(anyhow!("Could not find an available CID."))
-        }
+        system_properties::write(SYSPROP_LAST_CID, &format!("{}", cid))?;
+        Ok(cid)
     }
 
     fn find_available_cid<I>(&self, mut range: I) -> Option<Cid>
     where
         I: Iterator<Item = Cid>,
     {
-        range.find(|cid| !self.held_cids.contains_key(cid))
+        range.find(|cid| !self.held_contexts.contains_key(cid))
     }
 
-    fn allocate_vm_context(&mut self, client_uid: Uid) -> Result<Strong<dyn IGlobalVmContext>> {
-        let cid = self.allocate_cid()?;
-        let temp_dir = create_vm_directory(client_uid, *cid)?;
-        let binder = GlobalVmContext { cid, temp_dir, ..Default::default() };
+    fn allocate_vm_context(
+        &mut self,
+        requester_uid: uid_t,
+        requester_debug_pid: pid_t,
+    ) -> Result<Strong<dyn IGlobalVmContext>> {
+        // Garbage collect unused VM contexts.
+        self.held_contexts.retain(|_, instance| instance.strong_count() > 0);
+
+        let cid = self.get_next_available_cid()?;
+        let instance = Arc::new(GlobalVmInstance { cid, requester_uid, requester_debug_pid });
+        create_temporary_directory(&instance.get_temp_dir(), requester_uid)?;
+
+        self.held_contexts.insert(cid, Arc::downgrade(&instance));
+        let binder = GlobalVmContext { instance, ..Default::default() };
         Ok(BnGlobalVmContext::new_binder(binder, BinderFeatures::default()))
     }
 }
 
-fn create_vm_directory(client_uid: Uid, cid: Cid) -> Result<PathBuf> {
-    let path: PathBuf = format!("{}/{}", TEMPORARY_DIRECTORY, cid).into();
+fn create_temporary_directory(path: &PathBuf, requester_uid: uid_t) -> Result<()> {
     if path.as_path().exists() {
-        remove_temporary_dir(&path).unwrap_or_else(|e| {
+        remove_temporary_dir(path).unwrap_or_else(|e| {
             warn!("Could not delete temporary directory {:?}: {}", path, e);
         });
     }
     // Create a directory that is owned by client's UID but system's GID, and permissions 0700.
     // If the chown() fails, this will leave behind an empty directory that will get removed
     // at the next attempt, or if virtualizationservice is restarted.
-    create_dir(&path)
-        .with_context(|| format!("Could not create temporary directory {:?}", path))?;
-    chown(&path, Some(client_uid), None)
+    create_dir(path).with_context(|| format!("Could not create temporary directory {:?}", path))?;
+    chown(path, Some(Uid::from_raw(requester_uid)), None)
         .with_context(|| format!("Could not set ownership of temporary directory {:?}", path))?;
-    Ok(path)
+    Ok(())
 }
 
 /// Removes a directory owned by a different user by first changing its owner back
@@ -333,10 +366,8 @@
 /// Implementation of the AIDL `IGlobalVmContext` interface.
 #[derive(Debug, Default)]
 struct GlobalVmContext {
-    /// The unique CID assigned to the VM for vsock communication.
-    cid: Arc<Cid>,
-    /// The temporary folder created for the VM and owned by the creator's UID.
-    temp_dir: PathBuf,
+    /// Strong reference to the context's instance data structure.
+    instance: Arc<GlobalVmInstance>,
     /// Keeps our service process running as long as this VM context exists.
     #[allow(dead_code)]
     lazy_service_guard: LazyServiceGuard,
@@ -346,11 +377,11 @@
 
 impl IGlobalVmContext for GlobalVmContext {
     fn getCid(&self) -> binder::Result<i32> {
-        Ok(*self.cid as i32)
+        Ok(self.instance.cid as i32)
     }
 
     fn getTemporaryDirectory(&self) -> binder::Result<String> {
-        Ok(self.temp_dir.to_string_lossy().to_string())
+        Ok(self.instance.get_temp_dir().to_string_lossy().to_string())
     }
 }
 
@@ -469,20 +500,7 @@
     /// and as such is only permitted from the shell user.
     fn debugListVms(&self) -> binder::Result<Vec<VirtualMachineDebugInfo>> {
         check_debug_access()?;
-
-        let state = &mut *self.state.lock().unwrap();
-        let vms = state.vms();
-        let cids = vms
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|vm| VirtualMachineDebugInfo {
-                cid: vm.cid as i32,
-                temporaryDirectory: vm.temporary_directory.to_string_lossy().to_string(),
-                requesterUid: vm.requester_uid as i32,
-                requesterPid: vm.requester_debug_pid,
-                state: get_state(&vm),
-            })
-            .collect();
-        Ok(cids)
+        GLOBAL_SERVICE.debugListVms()
     }
 
     /// Hold a strong reference to a VM in VirtualizationService. This method is only intended for
@@ -564,13 +582,13 @@
         VirtualizationService::default()
     }
 
-    fn create_vm_context(&self) -> Result<(VmContext, Cid, PathBuf)> {
+    fn create_vm_context(&self, requester_debug_pid: pid_t) -> Result<(VmContext, Cid, PathBuf)> {
         const NUM_ATTEMPTS: usize = 5;
 
         for _ in 0..NUM_ATTEMPTS {
-            let global_context = GLOBAL_SERVICE.allocateGlobalVmContext()?;
-            let cid = global_context.getCid()? as Cid;
-            let temp_dir: PathBuf = global_context.getTemporaryDirectory()?.into();
+            let vm_context = GLOBAL_SERVICE.allocateGlobalVmContext(requester_debug_pid as i32)?;
+            let cid = vm_context.getCid()? as Cid;
+            let temp_dir: PathBuf = vm_context.getTemporaryDirectory()?.into();
             let service = VirtualMachineService::new_binder(self.state.clone(), cid).as_binder();
 
             // Start VM service listening for connections from the new CID on port=CID.
@@ -578,7 +596,7 @@
             match RpcServer::new_vsock(service, cid, port) {
                 Ok(vm_server) => {
                     vm_server.start();
-                    return Ok((VmContext::new(global_context, vm_server), cid, temp_dir));
+                    return Ok((VmContext::new(vm_context, vm_server), cid, temp_dir));
                 }
                 Err(err) => {
                     warn!("Could not start RpcServer on port {}: {}", port, err);
@@ -611,19 +629,21 @@
             check_use_custom_virtual_machine()?;
         }
 
-        let (vm_context, cid, temporary_directory) = self.create_vm_context().map_err(|e| {
-            error!("Failed to create VmContext: {:?}", e);
-            Status::new_service_specific_error_str(
-                -1,
-                Some(format!("Failed to create VmContext: {:?}", e)),
-            )
-        })?;
+        let requester_uid = get_calling_uid();
+        let requester_debug_pid = get_calling_pid();
+
+        let (vm_context, cid, temporary_directory) =
+            self.create_vm_context(requester_debug_pid).map_err(|e| {
+                error!("Failed to create VmContext: {:?}", e);
+                Status::new_service_specific_error_str(
+                    -1,
+                    Some(format!("Failed to create VmContext: {:?}", e)),
+                )
+            })?;
 
         let state = &mut *self.state.lock().unwrap();
         let console_fd = console_fd.map(clone_file).transpose()?;
         let log_fd = log_fd.map(clone_file).transpose()?;
-        let requester_uid = get_calling_uid();
-        let requester_debug_pid = get_calling_pid();
 
         // Counter to generate unique IDs for temporary image files.
         let mut next_temporary_image_id = 0;
@@ -664,6 +684,16 @@
             .try_for_each(check_label_for_partition)
             .map_err(|e| Status::new_service_specific_error_str(-1, Some(format!("{:?}", e))))?;
 
+        let kernel = maybe_clone_file(&config.kernel)?;
+        let initrd = maybe_clone_file(&config.initrd)?;
+
+        // In a protected VM, we require custom kernels to come from a trusted source (b/237054515).
+        if config.protectedVm {
+            check_label_for_kernel_files(&kernel, &initrd).map_err(|e| {
+                Status::new_service_specific_error_str(-1, Some(format!("{:?}", e)))
+            })?;
+        }
+
         let zero_filler_path = temporary_directory.join("zero.img");
         write_zero_filler(&zero_filler_path).map_err(|e| {
             error!("Failed to make composite image: {:?}", e);
@@ -706,8 +736,8 @@
             cid,
             name: config.name.clone(),
             bootloader: maybe_clone_file(&config.bootloader)?,
-            kernel: maybe_clone_file(&config.kernel)?,
-            initrd: maybe_clone_file(&config.initrd)?,
+            kernel,
+            initrd,
             disks,
             params: config.params.to_owned(),
             protected: *is_protected,
@@ -971,14 +1001,8 @@
     check_permission("android.permission.USE_CUSTOM_VIRTUAL_MACHINE")
 }
 
-/// Check if a partition has selinux labels that are not allowed
-fn check_label_for_partition(partition: &Partition) -> Result<()> {
-    let ctx = getfilecon(partition.image.as_ref().unwrap().as_ref())?;
-    check_label_is_allowed(&ctx).with_context(|| format!("Partition {} invalid", &partition.label))
-}
-
-// Return whether a partition is exempt from selinux label checks, because we know that it does
-// not contain code and is likely to be generated in an app-writable directory.
+/// Return whether a partition is exempt from selinux label checks, because we know that it does
+/// not contain code and is likely to be generated in an app-writable directory.
 fn is_safe_app_partition(label: &str) -> bool {
     // See add_microdroid_system_images & add_microdroid_payload_images in payload.rs.
     label == "vm-instance"
@@ -988,23 +1012,46 @@
         || label.starts_with("extra-idsig-")
 }
 
-fn check_label_is_allowed(ctx: &SeContext) -> Result<()> {
-    // We only want to allow code in a VM payload to be sourced from places that apps, and the
-    // system, do not have write access to.
-    // (Note that sepolicy must also grant read access for these types to both virtualization
-    // service and crosvm.)
-    // App private data files are deliberately excluded, to avoid arbitrary payloads being run on
-    // user devices (W^X).
-    match ctx.selinux_type()? {
+/// Check that a file SELinux label is acceptable.
+///
+/// We only want to allow code in a VM to be sourced from places that apps, and the
+/// system, do not have write access to.
+///
+/// Note that sepolicy must also grant read access for these types to both virtualization
+/// service and crosvm.
+///
+/// App private data files are deliberately excluded, to avoid arbitrary payloads being run on
+/// user devices (W^X).
+fn check_label_is_allowed(context: &SeContext) -> Result<()> {
+    match context.selinux_type()? {
         | "system_file" // immutable dm-verity protected partition
         | "apk_data_file" // APKs of an installed app
         | "staging_data_file" // updated/staged APEX images
         | "shell_data_file" // test files created via adb shell
          => Ok(()),
-        _ => bail!("Label {} is not allowed", ctx),
+        _ => bail!("Label {} is not allowed", context),
     }
 }
 
+fn check_label_for_partition(partition: &Partition) -> Result<()> {
+    let file = partition.image.as_ref().unwrap().as_ref();
+    check_label_is_allowed(&getfilecon(file)?)
+        .with_context(|| format!("Partition {} invalid", &partition.label))
+}
+
+fn check_label_for_kernel_files(kernel: &Option<File>, initrd: &Option<File>) -> Result<()> {
+    if let Some(f) = kernel {
+        check_label_for_file(f, "kernel")?;
+    }
+    if let Some(f) = initrd {
+        check_label_for_file(f, "initrd")?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+fn check_label_for_file(file: &File, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    check_label_is_allowed(&getfilecon(file)?).with_context(|| format!("{} file invalid", name))
+}
+
 /// Implementation of the AIDL `IVirtualMachine` interface. Used as a handle to a VM.
 #[derive(Debug)]
 struct VirtualMachine {
diff --git a/virtualizationservice/src/virtmgr.rs b/virtualizationservice/src/virtmgr.rs
index 5616097..dca64cb 100644
--- a/virtualizationservice/src/virtmgr.rs
+++ b/virtualizationservice/src/virtmgr.rs
@@ -33,6 +33,7 @@
 use nix::fcntl::{fcntl, F_GETFD, F_SETFD, FdFlag};
 use nix::unistd::{Pid, Uid};
 use std::os::unix::raw::{pid_t, uid_t};
+use rustutils::system_properties;
 
 const LOG_TAG: &str = "virtmgr";
 
@@ -91,6 +92,11 @@
     Ok(unsafe { OwnedFd::from_raw_fd(raw_fd) })
 }
 
+fn is_property_set(name: &str) -> bool {
+    system_properties::read_bool(name, false)
+        .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("Failed to read {name}: {e:?}"))
+}
+
 fn main() {
     android_logger::init_once(
         android_logger::Config::default()
@@ -99,6 +105,15 @@
             .with_log_id(android_logger::LogId::System),
     );
 
+    let non_protected_vm_supported = is_property_set("ro.boot.hypervisor.vm.supported");
+    let protected_vm_supported = is_property_set("ro.boot.hypervisor.protected_vm.supported");
+    if !non_protected_vm_supported && !protected_vm_supported {
+        // This should never happen, it indicates a misconfigured device where the virt APEX
+        // is present but VMs are not supported. If it does happen, fail fast to avoid wasting
+        // resources trying.
+        panic!("Device doesn't support protected or unprotected VMs");
+    }
+
     let args = Args::parse();
 
     let mut owned_fds = vec![];
diff --git a/vm/TEST_MAPPING b/vm/TEST_MAPPING
index a8d1fa6..485c3af 100644
--- a/vm/TEST_MAPPING
+++ b/vm/TEST_MAPPING
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 {
-  "avf-presubmit" : [
+  "avf-presubmit": [
     {
-      "name" : "vm.test"
+      "name": "vm.test"
     }
   ]
 }
diff --git a/vm/src/main.rs b/vm/src/main.rs
index 9fa805e..bfc7920 100644
--- a/vm/src/main.rs
+++ b/vm/src/main.rs
@@ -358,15 +358,15 @@
 
 /// Print information about supported VM types.
 fn command_info() -> Result<(), Error> {
-    let unprotected_vm_supported =
+    let non_protected_vm_supported =
         system_properties::read_bool("ro.boot.hypervisor.vm.supported", false)?;
     let protected_vm_supported =
         system_properties::read_bool("ro.boot.hypervisor.protected_vm.supported", false)?;
-    match (unprotected_vm_supported, protected_vm_supported) {
+    match (non_protected_vm_supported, protected_vm_supported) {
         (false, false) => println!("VMs are not supported."),
         (false, true) => println!("Only protected VMs are supported."),
-        (true, false) => println!("Only unprotected VMs are supported."),
-        (true, true) => println!("Both protected and unprotected VMs are supported."),
+        (true, false) => println!("Only non-protected VMs are supported."),
+        (true, true) => println!("Both protected and non-protected VMs are supported."),
     }
 
     if let Some(version) = system_properties::read("ro.boot.hypervisor.version")? {
@@ -387,10 +387,11 @@
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
-    use clap::IntoApp;
+    use clap::CommandFactory;
 
     #[test]
     fn verify_app() {
-        Opt::into_app().debug_assert();
+        // Check that the command parsing has been configured in a valid way.
+        Opt::command().debug_assert();
     }
 }
diff --git a/vm/vm_shell.sh b/vm/vm_shell.sh
index 29cc7da..3db7003 100755
--- a/vm/vm_shell.sh
+++ b/vm/vm_shell.sh
@@ -92,7 +92,8 @@
         shift
     done
     if [[ "${auto_connect}" == true ]]; then
-        adb shell /apex/com.android.virt/bin/vm run-microdroid -d "${passthrough_args}"
+        adb shell /apex/com.android.virt/bin/vm run-microdroid "${passthrough_args}" &
+        trap "kill $!" EXIT
         sleep 2
         handle_connect_cmd
     else
diff --git a/zipfuse/src/main.rs b/zipfuse/src/main.rs
index 365d236..5e9e160 100644
--- a/zipfuse/src/main.rs
+++ b/zipfuse/src/main.rs
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@
 mod inode;
 
 use anyhow::{Context as AnyhowContext, Result};
-use clap::{App, Arg};
+use clap::{builder::ValueParser, Arg, ArgAction, Command};
 use fuse::filesystem::*;
 use fuse::mount::*;
 use rustutils::system_properties;
@@ -34,65 +34,58 @@
 use std::mem::size_of;
 use std::os::unix::io::AsRawFd;
 use std::path::Path;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
 use std::sync::Mutex;
 
 use crate::inode::{DirectoryEntry, Inode, InodeData, InodeKind, InodeTable};
 
 fn main() -> Result<()> {
-    let matches = App::new("zipfuse")
+    let matches = clap_command().get_matches();
+
+    let zip_file = matches.get_one::<PathBuf>("ZIPFILE").unwrap();
+    let mount_point = matches.get_one::<PathBuf>("MOUNTPOINT").unwrap();
+    let options = matches.get_one::<String>("options");
+    let noexec = matches.get_flag("noexec");
+    let ready_prop = matches.get_one::<String>("readyprop");
+    let uid: u32 = matches.get_one::<String>("uid").map_or(0, |s| s.parse().unwrap());
+    let gid: u32 = matches.get_one::<String>("gid").map_or(0, |s| s.parse().unwrap());
+    run_fuse(zip_file, mount_point, options, noexec, ready_prop, uid, gid)?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn clap_command() -> Command {
+    Command::new("zipfuse")
         .arg(
-            Arg::with_name("options")
+            Arg::new("options")
                 .short('o')
-                .takes_value(true)
                 .required(false)
                 .help("Comma separated list of mount options"),
         )
         .arg(
-            Arg::with_name("noexec")
+            Arg::new("noexec")
                 .long("noexec")
-                .takes_value(false)
+                .action(ArgAction::SetTrue)
                 .help("Disallow the execution of binary files"),
         )
         .arg(
-            Arg::with_name("readyprop")
+            Arg::new("readyprop")
                 .short('p')
-                .takes_value(true)
                 .help("Specify a property to be set when mount is ready"),
         )
-        .arg(
-            Arg::with_name("uid")
-                .short('u')
-                .takes_value(true)
-                .help("numeric UID who's the owner of the files"),
-        )
-        .arg(
-            Arg::with_name("gid")
-                .short('g')
-                .takes_value(true)
-                .help("numeric GID who's the group of the files"),
-        )
-        .arg(Arg::with_name("ZIPFILE").required(true))
-        .arg(Arg::with_name("MOUNTPOINT").required(true))
-        .get_matches();
-
-    let zip_file = matches.value_of("ZIPFILE").unwrap().as_ref();
-    let mount_point = matches.value_of("MOUNTPOINT").unwrap().as_ref();
-    let options = matches.value_of("options");
-    let noexec = matches.is_present("noexec");
-    let ready_prop = matches.value_of("readyprop");
-    let uid: u32 = matches.value_of("uid").map_or(0, |s| s.parse().unwrap());
-    let gid: u32 = matches.value_of("gid").map_or(0, |s| s.parse().unwrap());
-    run_fuse(zip_file, mount_point, options, noexec, ready_prop, uid, gid)?;
-    Ok(())
+        .arg(Arg::new("uid").short('u').help("numeric UID who's the owner of the files"))
+        .arg(Arg::new("gid").short('g').help("numeric GID who's the group of the files"))
+        .arg(Arg::new("ZIPFILE").value_parser(ValueParser::path_buf()).required(true))
+        .arg(Arg::new("MOUNTPOINT").value_parser(ValueParser::path_buf()).required(true))
 }
 
 /// Runs a fuse filesystem by mounting `zip_file` on `mount_point`.
 pub fn run_fuse(
     zip_file: &Path,
     mount_point: &Path,
-    extra_options: Option<&str>,
+    extra_options: Option<&String>,
     noexec: bool,
-    ready_prop: Option<&str>,
+    ready_prop: Option<&String>,
     uid: u32,
     gid: u32,
 ) -> Result<()> {
@@ -471,11 +464,11 @@
 
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
-    use anyhow::{bail, Result};
+    use super::*;
+    use anyhow::bail;
     use nix::sys::statfs::{statfs, FsType};
     use std::collections::BTreeSet;
     use std::fs;
-    use std::fs::File;
     use std::io::Write;
     use std::os::unix::fs::MetadataExt;
     use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
@@ -873,4 +866,10 @@
         // Start zipfuse over to the loop device (not the zip file)
         run_fuse_and_check_test_zip(&test_dir.path(), &ld.path().unwrap());
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn verify_command() {
+        // Check that the command parsing has been configured in a valid way.
+        clap_command().debug_assert();
+    }
 }