diff --git a/authfs/aidl/com/android/virt/fs/IVirtFdService.aidl b/authfs/aidl/com/android/virt/fs/IVirtFdService.aidl
index d8f481a..58ccfc3 100644
--- a/authfs/aidl/com/android/virt/fs/IVirtFdService.aidl
+++ b/authfs/aidl/com/android/virt/fs/IVirtFdService.aidl
@@ -17,8 +17,8 @@
 package com.android.virt.fs;
 
 /**
- * A service that works like a file server, where the files and directories are identified by "FD"
- * as the unique identifier.
+ * A service that works like a file server, where the files and directories are identified by
+ * "remote FD" that may be pre-exchanged or created on request.
  *
  * When a binder error is returned and it is a service specific error, the error code is an errno
  * value which is an int.
@@ -30,28 +30,45 @@
     const int MAX_REQUESTING_DATA = 16384;
 
     /**
-     * Returns the content of the given file ID, from the offset, for the amount of requested size
+     * Returns the content of the given remote FD, from the offset, for the amount of requested size
      * or until EOF.
      */
-    byte[] readFile(int id, long offset, int size);
+    byte[] readFile(int fd, long offset, int size);
 
     /**
-     * Returns the content of fs-verity compatible Merkle tree of the given file ID, from the
+     * Returns the content of fs-verity compatible Merkle tree of the given remote FD, from the
      * offset, for the amount of requested size or until EOF.
      */
-    byte[] readFsverityMerkleTree(int id, long offset, int size);
+    byte[] readFsverityMerkleTree(int fd, long offset, int size);
 
-    /** Returns the fs-verity signature of the given file ID. */
-    byte[] readFsveritySignature(int id);
+    /** Returns the fs-verity signature of the given remote FD. */
+    byte[] readFsveritySignature(int fd);
 
     /**
-     * Writes the buffer to the given file ID from the file's offset. Returns the number of bytes
+     * Writes the buffer to the given remote FD from the file's offset. Returns the number of bytes
      * written.
      */
-    int writeFile(int id, in byte[] buf, long offset);
+    int writeFile(int fd, in byte[] buf, long offset);
 
-    /** Resizes the file backed by the given file ID to the new size. */
-    void resize(int id, long size);
+    /** Resizes the file backed by the given remote FD to the new size. */
+    void resize(int fd, long size);
 
-    long getFileSize(int id);
+    /** Returns the file size. */
+    long getFileSize(int fd);
+
+    /**
+     * Create a file given the remote directory FD.
+     *
+     * @param basename The file name to create. Must not contain directory separator.
+     * @return file A remote FD that represents the new created file.
+     */
+    int createFileInDirectory(int fd, String basename);
+
+    /**
+     * Create a directory inside the given remote directory FD.
+     *
+     * @param basename The directory name to create. Must not contain directory separator.
+     * @return file FD that represents the new created directory.
+     */
+    int createDirectoryInDirectory(int id, String basename);
 }
diff --git a/authfs/fd_server/src/aidl.rs b/authfs/fd_server/src/aidl.rs
index 48547e7..0c41eac 100644
--- a/authfs/fd_server/src/aidl.rs
+++ b/authfs/fd_server/src/aidl.rs
@@ -16,23 +16,27 @@
 
 use anyhow::Result;
 use log::error;
-use nix::errno::Errno;
+use nix::{
+    dir::Dir, errno::Errno, fcntl::openat, fcntl::OFlag, sys::stat::mkdirat, sys::stat::Mode,
+};
 use std::cmp::min;
-use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use std::collections::{btree_map, BTreeMap};
 use std::convert::TryInto;
 use std::fs::File;
 use std::io;
 use std::os::unix::fs::FileExt;
-use std::os::unix::io::AsRawFd;
+use std::os::unix::io::{AsRawFd, FromRawFd};
+use std::path::MAIN_SEPARATOR;
+use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
 
 use crate::fsverity;
 use authfs_aidl_interface::aidl::com::android::virt::fs::IVirtFdService::{
     BnVirtFdService, IVirtFdService, MAX_REQUESTING_DATA,
 };
 use authfs_aidl_interface::binder::{
-    BinderFeatures, Interface, Result as BinderResult, Status, StatusCode, Strong,
+    BinderFeatures, ExceptionCode, Interface, Result as BinderResult, Status, StatusCode, Strong,
 };
-use binder_common::new_binder_service_specific_error;
+use binder_common::{new_binder_exception, new_binder_service_specific_error};
 
 fn validate_and_cast_offset(offset: i64) -> Result<u64, Status> {
     offset.try_into().map_err(|_| new_errno_error(Errno::EINVAL))
@@ -64,26 +68,53 @@
     /// A readable/writable file to serve by this server. This backing file should just be a
     /// regular file and does not have any specific property.
     ReadWrite(File),
+
+    /// A writable directory to serve by this server.
+    OutputDir(Dir),
 }
 
 pub struct FdService {
-    /// A pool of opened files, may be readonly or read-writable.
-    fd_pool: BTreeMap<i32, FdConfig>,
+    /// A pool of opened files and directories, which can be looked up by the FD number.
+    fd_pool: Arc<Mutex<BTreeMap<i32, FdConfig>>>,
 }
 
 impl FdService {
     pub fn new_binder(fd_pool: BTreeMap<i32, FdConfig>) -> Strong<dyn IVirtFdService> {
-        BnVirtFdService::new_binder(FdService { fd_pool }, BinderFeatures::default())
+        BnVirtFdService::new_binder(
+            FdService { fd_pool: Arc::new(Mutex::new(fd_pool)) },
+            BinderFeatures::default(),
+        )
     }
 
-    /// Handles the requesting file `id` with `handler` if it is in the FD pool. This function
-    /// returns whatever the handler returns.
-    fn handle_fd<F, R>(&self, id: i32, handler: F) -> BinderResult<R>
+    /// Handles the requesting file `id` with `handle_fn` if it is in the FD pool. This function
+    /// returns whatever `handle_fn` returns.
+    fn handle_fd<F, R>(&self, id: i32, handle_fn: F) -> BinderResult<R>
     where
         F: FnOnce(&FdConfig) -> BinderResult<R>,
     {
-        let fd_config = self.fd_pool.get(&id).ok_or_else(|| new_errno_error(Errno::EBADF))?;
-        handler(fd_config)
+        let fd_pool = self.fd_pool.lock().unwrap();
+        let fd_config = fd_pool.get(&id).ok_or_else(|| new_errno_error(Errno::EBADF))?;
+        handle_fn(fd_config)
+    }
+
+    /// Inserts a new FD and corresponding `FdConfig` created by `create_fn` to the FD pool, then
+    /// returns the new FD number.
+    fn insert_new_fd<F>(&self, fd: i32, create_fn: F) -> BinderResult<i32>
+    where
+        F: FnOnce(&mut FdConfig) -> BinderResult<(i32, FdConfig)>,
+    {
+        let mut fd_pool = self.fd_pool.lock().unwrap();
+        let mut fd_config = fd_pool.get_mut(&fd).ok_or_else(|| new_errno_error(Errno::EBADF))?;
+        let (new_fd, new_fd_config) = create_fn(&mut fd_config)?;
+        if let btree_map::Entry::Vacant(entry) = fd_pool.entry(new_fd) {
+            entry.insert(new_fd_config);
+            Ok(new_fd)
+        } else {
+            Err(new_binder_exception(
+                ExceptionCode::ILLEGAL_STATE,
+                format!("The newly created FD {} is already in the pool unexpectedly", new_fd),
+            ))
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -101,6 +132,7 @@
                     new_errno_error(Errno::EIO)
                 })
             }
+            FdConfig::OutputDir(_) => Err(new_errno_error(Errno::EISDIR)),
         })
     }
 
@@ -133,6 +165,7 @@
                 // use.
                 Err(new_errno_error(Errno::ENOSYS))
             }
+            FdConfig::OutputDir(_) => Err(new_errno_error(Errno::EISDIR)),
         })
     }
 
@@ -162,6 +195,7 @@
                 // There is no signature for a writable file.
                 Err(new_errno_error(Errno::ENOSYS))
             }
+            FdConfig::OutputDir(_) => Err(new_errno_error(Errno::EISDIR)),
         })
     }
 
@@ -179,6 +213,7 @@
                     new_errno_error(Errno::EIO)
                 })? as i32)
             }
+            FdConfig::OutputDir(_) => Err(new_errno_error(Errno::EISDIR)),
         })
     }
 
@@ -194,6 +229,7 @@
                     new_errno_error(Errno::EIO)
                 })
             }
+            FdConfig::OutputDir(_) => Err(new_errno_error(Errno::EISDIR)),
         })
     }
 
@@ -218,6 +254,50 @@
                 // for a writable file.
                 Err(new_errno_error(Errno::ENOSYS))
             }
+            FdConfig::OutputDir(_) => Err(new_errno_error(Errno::EISDIR)),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn createFileInDirectory(&self, fd: i32, basename: &str) -> BinderResult<i32> {
+        if basename.contains(MAIN_SEPARATOR) {
+            return Err(new_errno_error(Errno::EINVAL));
+        }
+        self.insert_new_fd(fd, |config| match config {
+            FdConfig::OutputDir(dir) => {
+                let new_fd = openat(
+                    dir.as_raw_fd(),
+                    basename,
+                    // TODO(205172873): handle the case when the file already exist, e.g. truncate
+                    // or fail, and possibly allow the client to specify. For now, always truncate.
+                    OFlag::O_CREAT | OFlag::O_RDWR | OFlag::O_TRUNC,
+                    Mode::S_IRUSR | Mode::S_IWUSR,
+                )
+                .map_err(new_errno_error)?;
+                // SAFETY: new_fd is just created and not an error.
+                let new_file = unsafe { File::from_raw_fd(new_fd) };
+                Ok((new_fd, FdConfig::ReadWrite(new_file)))
+            }
+            _ => Err(new_errno_error(Errno::ENOTDIR)),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn createDirectoryInDirectory(&self, dir_fd: i32, basename: &str) -> BinderResult<i32> {
+        if basename.contains(MAIN_SEPARATOR) {
+            return Err(new_errno_error(Errno::EINVAL));
+        }
+        self.insert_new_fd(dir_fd, |config| match config {
+            FdConfig::OutputDir(_) => {
+                mkdirat(dir_fd, basename, Mode::S_IRWXU).map_err(new_errno_error)?;
+                let new_dir = Dir::openat(
+                    dir_fd,
+                    basename,
+                    OFlag::O_DIRECTORY | OFlag::O_RDONLY,
+                    Mode::empty(),
+                )
+                .map_err(new_errno_error)?;
+                Ok((new_dir.as_raw_fd(), FdConfig::OutputDir(new_dir)))
+            }
+            _ => Err(new_errno_error(Errno::ENOTDIR)),
         })
     }
 }
diff --git a/authfs/fd_server/src/main.rs b/authfs/fd_server/src/main.rs
index 3413ce6..bbcd49f 100644
--- a/authfs/fd_server/src/main.rs
+++ b/authfs/fd_server/src/main.rs
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@
 use anyhow::{bail, Result};
 use binder_common::rpc_server::run_rpc_server;
 use log::debug;
+use nix::dir::Dir;
 use std::collections::BTreeMap;
 use std::fs::File;
 use std::os::unix::io::FromRawFd;
@@ -77,6 +78,12 @@
     Ok((fd, FdConfig::ReadWrite(file)))
 }
 
+fn parse_arg_rw_dirs(arg: &str) -> Result<(i32, FdConfig)> {
+    let fd = arg.parse::<i32>()?;
+
+    Ok((fd, FdConfig::OutputDir(Dir::from_fd(fd)?)))
+}
+
 struct Args {
     fd_pool: BTreeMap<i32, FdConfig>,
     ready_fd: Option<File>,
@@ -93,6 +100,10 @@
              .long("rw-fds")
              .multiple(true)
              .number_of_values(1))
+        .arg(clap::Arg::with_name("rw-dirs")
+             .long("rw-dirs")
+             .multiple(true)
+             .number_of_values(1))
         .arg(clap::Arg::with_name("ready-fd")
             .long("ready-fd")
             .takes_value(true))
@@ -111,6 +122,12 @@
             fd_pool.insert(fd, config);
         }
     }
+    if let Some(args) = matches.values_of("rw-dirs") {
+        for arg in args {
+            let (fd, config) = parse_arg_rw_dirs(arg)?;
+            fd_pool.insert(fd, config);
+        }
+    }
     let ready_fd = if let Some(arg) = matches.value_of("ready-fd") {
         let fd = arg.parse::<i32>()?;
         Some(fd_to_file(fd)?)
diff --git a/authfs/service/src/authfs.rs b/authfs/service/src/authfs.rs
index 6d87243..1b05749 100644
--- a/authfs/service/src/authfs.rs
+++ b/authfs/service/src/authfs.rs
@@ -132,11 +132,11 @@
         // TODO(b/185178698): Many input files need to be signed and verified.
         // or can we use debug cert for now, which is better than nothing?
         args.push(OsString::from("--remote-ro-file-unverified"));
-        args.push(OsString::from(format!("{}:{}", conf.fd, conf.fd)));
+        args.push(OsString::from(conf.fd.to_string()));
     }
     for conf in out_fds {
         args.push(OsString::from("--remote-new-rw-file"));
-        args.push(OsString::from(format!("{}:{}", conf.fd, conf.fd)));
+        args.push(OsString::from(conf.fd.to_string()));
     }
     if debuggable {
         args.push(OsString::from("--debug"));
diff --git a/authfs/src/file.rs b/authfs/src/file.rs
index 404e3a5..bbe5e6c 100644
--- a/authfs/src/file.rs
+++ b/authfs/src/file.rs
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
+mod remote_dir;
 mod remote_file;
 
+pub use remote_dir::RemoteDirEditor;
 pub use remote_file::{RemoteFileEditor, RemoteFileReader, RemoteMerkleTreeReader};
 
 use binder::unstable_api::{new_spibinder, AIBinder};
@@ -8,9 +10,10 @@
 
 use crate::common::CHUNK_SIZE;
 use authfs_aidl_interface::aidl::com::android::virt::fs::IVirtFdService::IVirtFdService;
-use authfs_aidl_interface::binder::Strong;
+use authfs_aidl_interface::binder::{Status, Strong};
 
 pub type VirtFdService = Strong<dyn IVirtFdService>;
+pub type VirtFdServiceStatus = Status;
 
 pub type ChunkBuffer = [u8; CHUNK_SIZE as usize];
 
diff --git a/authfs/src/file/remote_dir.rs b/authfs/src/file/remote_dir.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e1bc33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/authfs/src/file/remote_dir.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,127 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright (C) 2021 The Android Open Source Project
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *      http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::io;
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+
+use super::remote_file::RemoteFileEditor;
+use super::{VirtFdService, VirtFdServiceStatus};
+use crate::fsverity::VerifiedFileEditor;
+use crate::fusefs::Inode;
+
+const MAX_ENTRIES: u16 = 100; // Arbitrary limit
+
+/// A remote directory backed by a remote directory FD, where the provider/fd_server is not
+/// trusted.
+///
+/// The directory is assumed empty initially without the trust to the storage. Functionally, when
+/// the backing storage is not clean, the fd_server can fail to create a file or directory when
+/// there is name collision. From RemoteDirEditor's perspective of security, the creation failure
+/// is just one of possible errors that can happen, and what matters is RemoteDirEditor maintains
+/// the integrity itself.
+///
+/// When new files are created through RemoteDirEditor, the file integrity are maintained within the
+/// VM. Similarly, integrity (namely the list of entries) of the directory, or new directories
+/// created within such a directory, are also maintained within the VM. A compromised fd_server or
+/// malicious client can't affect the view to the files and directories within such a directory in
+/// the VM.
+pub struct RemoteDirEditor {
+    service: VirtFdService,
+    remote_dir_fd: i32,
+
+    /// Mapping of entry names to the corresponding inode number. The actual file/directory is
+    /// stored in the global pool in fusefs.
+    entries: HashMap<PathBuf, Inode>,
+}
+
+impl RemoteDirEditor {
+    pub fn new(service: VirtFdService, remote_dir_fd: i32) -> Self {
+        RemoteDirEditor { service, remote_dir_fd, entries: HashMap::new() }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the number of entries created.
+    pub fn number_of_entries(&self) -> u16 {
+        self.entries.len() as u16 // limited to MAX_ENTRIES
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a remote file at the current directory. If succeed, the returned remote FD is
+    /// stored in `entries` as the inode number.
+    pub fn create_file(
+        &mut self,
+        basename: &Path,
+    ) -> io::Result<(Inode, VerifiedFileEditor<RemoteFileEditor>)> {
+        self.validate_argument(basename)?;
+
+        let basename_str =
+            basename.to_str().ok_or_else(|| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EINVAL))?;
+        let new_fd = self
+            .service
+            .createFileInDirectory(self.remote_dir_fd, basename_str)
+            .map_err(into_io_error)?;
+        let new_inode = new_fd as Inode;
+
+        let new_remote_file =
+            VerifiedFileEditor::new(RemoteFileEditor::new(self.service.clone(), new_fd));
+        self.entries.insert(basename.to_path_buf(), new_inode);
+        Ok((new_inode, new_remote_file))
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a remote directory at the current directory. If succeed, the returned remote FD is
+    /// stored in `entries` as the inode number.
+    pub fn mkdir(&mut self, basename: &Path) -> io::Result<(Inode, RemoteDirEditor)> {
+        self.validate_argument(basename)?;
+
+        let basename_str =
+            basename.to_str().ok_or_else(|| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EINVAL))?;
+        let new_fd = self
+            .service
+            .createDirectoryInDirectory(self.remote_dir_fd, basename_str)
+            .map_err(into_io_error)?;
+        let new_inode = new_fd as Inode;
+
+        let new_remote_dir = RemoteDirEditor::new(self.service.clone(), new_fd);
+        self.entries.insert(basename.to_path_buf(), new_inode);
+        Ok((new_inode, new_remote_dir))
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the inode number of a file or directory named `name` previously created through
+    /// `RemoteDirEditor`.
+    pub fn find_inode(&self, name: &Path) -> Option<Inode> {
+        self.entries.get(name).copied()
+    }
+
+    fn validate_argument(&self, basename: &Path) -> io::Result<()> {
+        // Kernel should only give us a basename.
+        debug_assert!(basename.parent().is_none());
+        if self.entries.contains_key(basename) {
+            Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EEXIST))
+        } else if self.entries.len() >= MAX_ENTRIES.into() {
+            Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EMLINK))
+        } else {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn into_io_error(e: VirtFdServiceStatus) -> io::Error {
+    let maybe_errno = e.service_specific_error();
+    if maybe_errno > 0 {
+        io::Error::from_raw_os_error(maybe_errno)
+    } else {
+        io::Error::new(io::ErrorKind::Other, e.get_description())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/authfs/src/fusefs.rs b/authfs/src/fusefs.rs
index d985581..64ccc41 100644
--- a/authfs/src/fusefs.rs
+++ b/authfs/src/fusefs.rs
@@ -15,16 +15,17 @@
  */
 
 use anyhow::Result;
-use log::{debug, warn};
-use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use log::{debug, error, warn};
+use std::collections::{btree_map, BTreeMap, HashMap};
 use std::convert::TryFrom;
-use std::ffi::CStr;
+use std::ffi::{CStr, OsStr};
 use std::fs::OpenOptions;
 use std::io;
 use std::mem::MaybeUninit;
 use std::option::Option;
-use std::os::unix::io::AsRawFd;
-use std::path::Path;
+use std::os::unix::{ffi::OsStrExt, io::AsRawFd};
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+use std::sync::Mutex;
 use std::time::Duration;
 
 use fuse::filesystem::{
@@ -35,17 +36,19 @@
 
 use crate::common::{divide_roundup, ChunkedSizeIter, CHUNK_SIZE};
 use crate::file::{
-    RandomWrite, ReadByChunk, RemoteFileEditor, RemoteFileReader, RemoteMerkleTreeReader,
+    RandomWrite, ReadByChunk, RemoteDirEditor, RemoteFileEditor, RemoteFileReader,
+    RemoteMerkleTreeReader,
 };
 use crate::fsverity::{VerifiedFileEditor, VerifiedFileReader};
 
-const DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT: std::time::Duration = Duration::from_secs(5);
-
 pub type Inode = u64;
 type Handle = u64;
 
-/// `FileConfig` defines the file type supported by AuthFS.
-pub enum FileConfig {
+const DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT: Duration = Duration::from_secs(5);
+const ROOT_INODE: Inode = 1;
+
+/// `AuthFsEntry` defines the filesystem entry type supported by AuthFS.
+pub enum AuthFsEntry {
     /// A file type that is verified against fs-verity signature (thus read-only). The file is
     /// served from a remote server.
     VerifiedReadonly {
@@ -57,35 +60,74 @@
     /// A file type that is initially empty, and the content is stored on a remote server. File
     /// integrity is guaranteed with private Merkle tree.
     VerifiedNew { editor: VerifiedFileEditor<RemoteFileEditor> },
+    /// A directory type that is initially empty. One can create new file (`VerifiedNew`) and new
+    /// directory (`VerifiedNewDirectory` itself) with integrity guaranteed within the VM.
+    VerifiedNewDirectory { dir: RemoteDirEditor },
 }
 
+// AuthFS needs to be `Sync` to be accepted by fuse::worker::start_message_loop as a `FileSystem`.
 struct AuthFs {
-    /// Store `FileConfig`s using the `Inode` number as the search index.
-    ///
-    /// For further optimization to minimize the search cost, since Inode is integer, we may
-    /// consider storing them in a Vec if we can guarantee that the numbers are small and
-    /// consecutive.
-    file_pool: BTreeMap<Inode, FileConfig>,
+    /// Table for `Inode` to `AuthFsEntry` lookup. This needs to be `Sync` to be used in
+    /// `fuse::worker::start_message_loop`.
+    inode_table: Mutex<BTreeMap<Inode, AuthFsEntry>>,
 
-    /// Maximum bytes in the write transaction to the FUSE device. This limits the maximum size to
-    /// a read request (including FUSE protocol overhead).
+    /// Root directory entry table for path to `Inode` lookup. The root directory content should
+    /// remain constant throughout the filesystem's lifetime.
+    root_entries: HashMap<PathBuf, Inode>,
+
+    /// Maximum bytes in the write transaction to the FUSE device. This limits the maximum buffer
+    /// size in a read request (including FUSE protocol overhead) that the filesystem writes to.
     max_write: u32,
 }
 
 impl AuthFs {
-    pub fn new(file_pool: BTreeMap<Inode, FileConfig>, max_write: u32) -> AuthFs {
-        AuthFs { file_pool, max_write }
+    pub fn new(root_entries_by_path: HashMap<PathBuf, AuthFsEntry>, max_write: u32) -> AuthFs {
+        let mut next_inode = ROOT_INODE + 1;
+        let mut inode_table = BTreeMap::new();
+        let mut root_entries = HashMap::new();
+
+        root_entries_by_path.into_iter().for_each(|(path_buf, entry)| {
+            next_inode += 1;
+            root_entries.insert(path_buf, next_inode);
+            inode_table.insert(next_inode, entry);
+        });
+
+        AuthFs { inode_table: Mutex::new(inode_table), root_entries, max_write }
     }
 
-    /// Handles the file associated with `inode` if found. This function returns whatever the
-    /// handler returns.
-    fn handle_file<F, R>(&self, inode: &Inode, handler: F) -> io::Result<R>
+    /// Handles the file associated with `inode` if found. This function returns whatever
+    /// `handle_fn` returns.
+    fn handle_inode<F, R>(&self, inode: &Inode, handle_fn: F) -> io::Result<R>
     where
-        F: FnOnce(&FileConfig) -> io::Result<R>,
+        F: FnOnce(&AuthFsEntry) -> io::Result<R>,
     {
+        let inode_table = self.inode_table.lock().unwrap();
         let config =
-            self.file_pool.get(inode).ok_or_else(|| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::ENOENT))?;
-        handler(config)
+            inode_table.get(inode).ok_or_else(|| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::ENOENT))?;
+        handle_fn(config)
+    }
+
+    /// Inserts a new inode and corresponding `AuthFsEntry` created by `create_fn` to the inode
+    /// table, then returns the new inode number.
+    fn insert_new_inode<F>(&self, inode: &Inode, create_fn: F) -> io::Result<Inode>
+    where
+        F: FnOnce(&mut AuthFsEntry) -> io::Result<(Inode, AuthFsEntry)>,
+    {
+        let mut inode_table = self.inode_table.lock().unwrap();
+        let mut config =
+            inode_table.get_mut(inode).ok_or_else(|| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::ENOENT))?;
+        let (new_inode, new_file_config) = create_fn(&mut config)?;
+        if let btree_map::Entry::Vacant(entry) = inode_table.entry(new_inode) {
+            entry.insert(new_file_config);
+            Ok(new_inode)
+        } else {
+            // We can't assume fd_server is trusted, so the returned FD may collide with existing
+            // one, even when we are creating a new file. Do not override an existing FD. In terms
+            // of security, it is better to "leak" the file created earlier, than returning an
+            // existing inode as a new file.
+            error!("Inode {} already exists, do not override", new_inode);
+            Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EIO))
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -105,25 +147,30 @@
     }
 }
 
-enum FileMode {
+#[allow(clippy::enum_variant_names)]
+enum AccessMode {
     ReadOnly,
     ReadWrite,
 }
 
-fn create_stat(ino: libc::ino_t, file_size: u64, file_mode: FileMode) -> io::Result<libc::stat64> {
+fn create_stat(
+    ino: libc::ino_t,
+    file_size: u64,
+    access_mode: AccessMode,
+) -> io::Result<libc::stat64> {
+    // SAFETY: stat64 is a plan C struct without pointer.
     let mut st = unsafe { MaybeUninit::<libc::stat64>::zeroed().assume_init() };
 
     st.st_ino = ino;
-    st.st_mode = match file_mode {
+    st.st_mode = match access_mode {
         // Until needed, let's just grant the owner access.
-        FileMode::ReadOnly => libc::S_IFREG | libc::S_IRUSR,
-        FileMode::ReadWrite => libc::S_IFREG | libc::S_IRUSR | libc::S_IWUSR,
+        // TODO(205169366): Implement mode properly.
+        AccessMode::ReadOnly => libc::S_IFREG | libc::S_IRUSR,
+        AccessMode::ReadWrite => libc::S_IFREG | libc::S_IRUSR | libc::S_IWUSR,
     };
-    st.st_dev = 0;
     st.st_nlink = 1;
     st.st_uid = 0;
     st.st_gid = 0;
-    st.st_rdev = 0;
     st.st_size = libc::off64_t::try_from(file_size)
         .map_err(|_| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EFBIG))?;
     st.st_blksize = blk_size();
@@ -133,6 +180,30 @@
     Ok(st)
 }
 
+fn create_dir_stat(ino: libc::ino_t, file_number: u16) -> io::Result<libc::stat64> {
+    // SAFETY: stat64 is a plan C struct without pointer.
+    let mut st = unsafe { MaybeUninit::<libc::stat64>::zeroed().assume_init() };
+
+    st.st_ino = ino;
+    // TODO(205169366): Implement mode properly.
+    st.st_mode = libc::S_IFDIR
+        | libc::S_IXUSR
+        | libc::S_IWUSR
+        | libc::S_IRUSR
+        | libc::S_IXGRP
+        | libc::S_IXOTH;
+
+    // 2 extra for . and ..
+    st.st_nlink = file_number
+        .checked_add(2)
+        .ok_or_else(|| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EOVERFLOW))?
+        .into();
+
+    st.st_uid = 0;
+    st.st_gid = 0;
+    Ok(st)
+}
+
 fn offset_to_chunk_index(offset: u64) -> u64 {
     offset / CHUNK_SIZE
 }
@@ -196,30 +267,59 @@
         Ok(FsOptions::WRITEBACK_CACHE)
     }
 
-    fn lookup(&self, _ctx: Context, _parent: Inode, name: &CStr) -> io::Result<Entry> {
-        // Only accept file name that looks like an integrer. Files in the pool are simply exposed
-        // by their inode number. Also, there is currently no directory structure.
-        let num = name.to_str().map_err(|_| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EINVAL))?;
-        // Normally, `lookup` is required to increase a reference count for the inode (while
-        // `forget` will decrease it). It is not necessary here since the files are configured to
-        // be static.
-        let inode = num.parse::<Inode>().map_err(|_| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::ENOENT))?;
-        let st = self.handle_file(&inode, |config| match config {
-            FileConfig::UnverifiedReadonly { file_size, .. }
-            | FileConfig::VerifiedReadonly { file_size, .. } => {
-                create_stat(inode, *file_size, FileMode::ReadOnly)
-            }
-            FileConfig::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
-                create_stat(inode, editor.size(), FileMode::ReadWrite)
-            }
-        })?;
-        Ok(Entry {
-            inode,
-            generation: 0,
-            attr: st,
-            entry_timeout: DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
-            attr_timeout: DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
-        })
+    fn lookup(&self, _ctx: Context, parent: Inode, name: &CStr) -> io::Result<Entry> {
+        if parent == ROOT_INODE {
+            let inode = *self
+                .root_entries
+                .get(cstr_to_path(name))
+                .ok_or_else(|| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::ENOENT))?;
+            // Normally, `lookup` is required to increase a reference count for the inode (while
+            // `forget` will decrease it). It is not yet necessary until we start to support
+            // deletion (only for `VerifiedNewDirectory`).
+            let st = self.handle_inode(&inode, |config| match config {
+                AuthFsEntry::UnverifiedReadonly { file_size, .. }
+                | AuthFsEntry::VerifiedReadonly { file_size, .. } => {
+                    create_stat(inode, *file_size, AccessMode::ReadOnly)
+                }
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
+                    create_stat(inode, editor.size(), AccessMode::ReadWrite)
+                }
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNewDirectory { dir } => {
+                    create_dir_stat(inode, dir.number_of_entries())
+                }
+            })?;
+            Ok(Entry {
+                inode,
+                generation: 0,
+                attr: st,
+                entry_timeout: DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
+                attr_timeout: DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
+            })
+        } else {
+            let inode = self.handle_inode(&parent, |config| match config {
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNewDirectory { dir } => {
+                    let path: &Path = cstr_to_path(name);
+                    dir.find_inode(path).ok_or_else(|| io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::ENOENT))
+                }
+                _ => Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::ENOTDIR)),
+            })?;
+            let st = self.handle_inode(&inode, |config| match config {
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
+                    create_stat(inode, editor.size(), AccessMode::ReadWrite)
+                }
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNewDirectory { dir } => {
+                    create_dir_stat(inode, dir.number_of_entries())
+                }
+                _ => Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EBADF)),
+            })?;
+            Ok(Entry {
+                inode,
+                generation: 0,
+                attr: st,
+                entry_timeout: DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
+                attr_timeout: DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
+            })
+        }
     }
 
     fn getattr(
@@ -228,15 +328,18 @@
         inode: Inode,
         _handle: Option<Handle>,
     ) -> io::Result<(libc::stat64, Duration)> {
-        self.handle_file(&inode, |config| {
+        self.handle_inode(&inode, |config| {
             Ok((
                 match config {
-                    FileConfig::UnverifiedReadonly { file_size, .. }
-                    | FileConfig::VerifiedReadonly { file_size, .. } => {
-                        create_stat(inode, *file_size, FileMode::ReadOnly)?
+                    AuthFsEntry::UnverifiedReadonly { file_size, .. }
+                    | AuthFsEntry::VerifiedReadonly { file_size, .. } => {
+                        create_stat(inode, *file_size, AccessMode::ReadOnly)?
                     }
-                    FileConfig::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
-                        create_stat(inode, editor.size(), FileMode::ReadWrite)?
+                    AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
+                        create_stat(inode, editor.size(), AccessMode::ReadWrite)?
+                    }
+                    AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNewDirectory { dir } => {
+                        create_dir_stat(inode, dir.number_of_entries())?
                     }
                 },
                 DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
@@ -252,22 +355,63 @@
     ) -> io::Result<(Option<Self::Handle>, fuse::sys::OpenOptions)> {
         // Since file handle is not really used in later operations (which use Inode directly),
         // return None as the handle.
-        self.handle_file(&inode, |config| {
+        self.handle_inode(&inode, |config| {
             match config {
-                FileConfig::VerifiedReadonly { .. } | FileConfig::UnverifiedReadonly { .. } => {
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedReadonly { .. } | AuthFsEntry::UnverifiedReadonly { .. } => {
                     check_access_mode(flags, libc::O_RDONLY)?;
                 }
-                FileConfig::VerifiedNew { .. } => {
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNew { .. } => {
                     // No need to check access modes since all the modes are allowed to the
                     // read-writable file.
                 }
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNewDirectory { .. } => {
+                    // TODO(victorhsieh): implement when needed.
+                    return Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::ENOSYS));
+                }
             }
-            // Always cache the file content. There is currently no need to support direct I/O or avoid
-            // the cache buffer. Memory mapping is only possible with cache enabled.
+            // Always cache the file content. There is currently no need to support direct I/O or
+            // avoid the cache buffer. Memory mapping is only possible with cache enabled.
             Ok((None, fuse::sys::OpenOptions::KEEP_CACHE))
         })
     }
 
+    fn create(
+        &self,
+        _ctx: Context,
+        parent: Self::Inode,
+        name: &CStr,
+        _mode: u32,
+        _flags: u32,
+        _umask: u32,
+    ) -> io::Result<(Entry, Option<Self::Handle>, fuse::sys::OpenOptions)> {
+        // TODO(205169366): Implement mode properly.
+        // TODO(205172873): handle O_TRUNC and O_EXCL properly.
+        let new_inode = self.insert_new_inode(&parent, |config| match config {
+            AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNewDirectory { dir } => {
+                let basename: &Path = cstr_to_path(name);
+                if dir.find_inode(basename).is_some() {
+                    return Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EEXIST));
+                }
+                let (new_inode, new_file) = dir.create_file(basename)?;
+                Ok((new_inode, AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNew { editor: new_file }))
+            }
+            _ => Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EBADF)),
+        })?;
+
+        Ok((
+            Entry {
+                inode: new_inode,
+                generation: 0,
+                attr: create_stat(new_inode, /* file_size */ 0, AccessMode::ReadWrite)?,
+                entry_timeout: DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
+                attr_timeout: DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
+            },
+            // See also `open`.
+            /* handle */ None,
+            fuse::sys::OpenOptions::KEEP_CACHE,
+        ))
+    }
+
     fn read<W: io::Write + ZeroCopyWriter>(
         &self,
         _ctx: Context,
@@ -279,19 +423,20 @@
         _lock_owner: Option<u64>,
         _flags: u32,
     ) -> io::Result<usize> {
-        self.handle_file(&inode, |config| {
+        self.handle_inode(&inode, |config| {
             match config {
-                FileConfig::VerifiedReadonly { reader, file_size } => {
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedReadonly { reader, file_size } => {
                     read_chunks(w, reader, *file_size, offset, size)
                 }
-                FileConfig::UnverifiedReadonly { reader, file_size } => {
+                AuthFsEntry::UnverifiedReadonly { reader, file_size } => {
                     read_chunks(w, reader, *file_size, offset, size)
                 }
-                FileConfig::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
                     // Note that with FsOptions::WRITEBACK_CACHE, it's possible for the kernel to
                     // request a read even if the file is open with O_WRONLY.
                     read_chunks(w, editor, editor.size(), offset, size)
                 }
+                _ => Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EBADF)),
             }
         })
     }
@@ -308,8 +453,8 @@
         _delayed_write: bool,
         _flags: u32,
     ) -> io::Result<usize> {
-        self.handle_file(&inode, |config| match config {
-            FileConfig::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
+        self.handle_inode(&inode, |config| match config {
+            AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
                 let mut buf = vec![0; size as usize];
                 r.read_exact(&mut buf)?;
                 editor.write_at(&buf, offset)
@@ -326,11 +471,11 @@
         _handle: Option<Handle>,
         valid: SetattrValid,
     ) -> io::Result<(libc::stat64, Duration)> {
-        self.handle_file(&inode, |config| {
+        self.handle_inode(&inode, |config| {
             match config {
-                FileConfig::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
                     // Initialize the default stat.
-                    let mut new_attr = create_stat(inode, editor.size(), FileMode::ReadWrite)?;
+                    let mut new_attr = create_stat(inode, editor.size(), AccessMode::ReadWrite)?;
                     // `valid` indicates what fields in `attr` are valid. Update to return correctly.
                     if valid.contains(SetattrValid::SIZE) {
                         // st_size is i64, but the cast should be safe since kernel should not give a
@@ -381,9 +526,9 @@
         name: &CStr,
         size: u32,
     ) -> io::Result<GetxattrReply> {
-        self.handle_file(&inode, |config| {
+        self.handle_inode(&inode, |config| {
             match config {
-                FileConfig::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
+                AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNew { editor } => {
                     // FUSE ioctl is limited, thus we can't implement fs-verity ioctls without a kernel
                     // change (see b/196635431). Until it's possible, use xattr to expose what we need
                     // as an authfs specific API.
@@ -407,11 +552,41 @@
             }
         })
     }
+
+    fn mkdir(
+        &self,
+        _ctx: Context,
+        parent: Self::Inode,
+        name: &CStr,
+        _mode: u32,
+        _umask: u32,
+    ) -> io::Result<Entry> {
+        // TODO(205169366): Implement mode properly.
+        let new_inode = self.insert_new_inode(&parent, |config| match config {
+            AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNewDirectory { dir } => {
+                let basename: &Path = cstr_to_path(name);
+                if dir.find_inode(basename).is_some() {
+                    return Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EEXIST));
+                }
+                let (new_inode, new_dir) = dir.mkdir(basename)?;
+                Ok((new_inode, AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNewDirectory { dir: new_dir }))
+            }
+            _ => Err(io::Error::from_raw_os_error(libc::EBADF)),
+        })?;
+
+        Ok(Entry {
+            inode: new_inode,
+            generation: 0,
+            attr: create_dir_stat(new_inode, /* file_number */ 0)?,
+            entry_timeout: DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
+            attr_timeout: DEFAULT_METADATA_TIMEOUT,
+        })
+    }
 }
 
 /// Mount and start the FUSE instance. This requires CAP_SYS_ADMIN.
 pub fn loop_forever(
-    file_pool: BTreeMap<Inode, FileConfig>,
+    root_entries: HashMap<PathBuf, AuthFsEntry>,
     mountpoint: &Path,
     extra_options: &Option<String>,
 ) -> Result<(), fuse::Error> {
@@ -442,6 +617,10 @@
         dev_fuse,
         max_write,
         max_read,
-        AuthFs::new(file_pool, max_write),
+        AuthFs::new(root_entries, max_write),
     )
 }
+
+fn cstr_to_path(cstr: &CStr) -> &Path {
+    OsStr::from_bytes(cstr.to_bytes()).as_ref()
+}
diff --git a/authfs/src/main.rs b/authfs/src/main.rs
index a6956e2..f6a2a56 100644
--- a/authfs/src/main.rs
+++ b/authfs/src/main.rs
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@
 
 use anyhow::{bail, Context, Result};
 use log::error;
-use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::convert::TryInto;
 use std::path::PathBuf;
 use structopt::StructOpt;
@@ -42,9 +42,9 @@
 mod fusefs;
 
 use auth::FakeAuthenticator;
-use file::{RemoteFileEditor, RemoteFileReader, RemoteMerkleTreeReader};
+use file::{RemoteDirEditor, RemoteFileEditor, RemoteFileReader, RemoteMerkleTreeReader};
 use fsverity::{VerifiedFileEditor, VerifiedFileReader};
-use fusefs::{FileConfig, Inode};
+use fusefs::AuthFsEntry;
 
 #[derive(StructOpt)]
 struct Args {
@@ -62,24 +62,33 @@
 
     /// A read-only remote file with integrity check. Can be multiple.
     ///
-    /// For example, `--remote-verified-file 5:10:/path/to/cert` tells the filesystem to associate
-    /// entry 5 with a remote file 10, and need to be verified against the /path/to/cert.
+    /// For example, `--remote-ro-file 5:/path/to/cert` tells the filesystem to associate the
+    /// file $MOUNTPOINT/5 with a remote FD 5, and need to be verified against the /path/to/cert.
     #[structopt(long, parse(try_from_str = parse_remote_ro_file_option))]
     remote_ro_file: Vec<OptionRemoteRoFile>,
 
     /// A read-only remote file without integrity check. Can be multiple.
     ///
-    /// For example, `--remote-unverified-file 5:10` tells the filesystem to associate entry 5
-    /// with a remote file 10.
-    #[structopt(long, parse(try_from_str = parse_remote_ro_file_unverified_option))]
-    remote_ro_file_unverified: Vec<OptionRemoteRoFileUnverified>,
+    /// For example, `--remote-ro-file-unverified 5` tells the filesystem to associate the file
+    /// $MOUNTPOINT/5 with a remote FD 5.
+    #[structopt(long)]
+    remote_ro_file_unverified: Vec<i32>,
 
     /// A new read-writable remote file with integrity check. Can be multiple.
     ///
-    /// For example, `--remote-new-verified-file 12:34` tells the filesystem to associate entry 12
-    /// with a remote file 34.
-    #[structopt(long, parse(try_from_str = parse_remote_new_rw_file_option))]
-    remote_new_rw_file: Vec<OptionRemoteRwFile>,
+    /// For example, `--remote-new-rw-file 5` tells the filesystem to associate the file
+    /// $MOUNTPOINT/5 with a remote FD 5.
+    #[structopt(long)]
+    remote_new_rw_file: Vec<i32>,
+
+    /// A new directory that is assumed empty in the backing filesystem. New files created in this
+    /// directory are integrity-protected in the same way as --remote-new-verified-file. Can be
+    /// multiple.
+    ///
+    /// For example, `--remote-new-rw-dir 5` tells the filesystem to associate $MOUNTPOINT/5
+    /// with a remote dir FD 5.
+    #[structopt(long)]
+    remote_new_rw_dir: Vec<i32>,
 
     /// Enable debugging features.
     #[structopt(long)]
@@ -87,136 +96,119 @@
 }
 
 struct OptionRemoteRoFile {
-    ino: Inode,
-
     /// ID to refer to the remote file.
-    remote_id: i32,
+    remote_fd: i32,
 
     /// Certificate to verify the authenticity of the file's fs-verity signature.
     /// TODO(170494765): Implement PKCS#7 signature verification.
     _certificate_path: PathBuf,
 }
 
-struct OptionRemoteRoFileUnverified {
-    ino: Inode,
-
-    /// ID to refer to the remote file.
-    remote_id: i32,
-}
-
-struct OptionRemoteRwFile {
-    ino: Inode,
-
-    /// ID to refer to the remote file.
-    remote_id: i32,
-}
-
 fn parse_remote_ro_file_option(option: &str) -> Result<OptionRemoteRoFile> {
     let strs: Vec<&str> = option.split(':').collect();
-    if strs.len() != 3 {
+    if strs.len() != 2 {
         bail!("Invalid option: {}", option);
     }
     Ok(OptionRemoteRoFile {
-        ino: strs[0].parse::<Inode>()?,
-        remote_id: strs[1].parse::<i32>()?,
-        _certificate_path: PathBuf::from(strs[2]),
+        remote_fd: strs[0].parse::<i32>()?,
+        _certificate_path: PathBuf::from(strs[1]),
     })
 }
 
-fn parse_remote_ro_file_unverified_option(option: &str) -> Result<OptionRemoteRoFileUnverified> {
-    let strs: Vec<&str> = option.split(':').collect();
-    if strs.len() != 2 {
-        bail!("Invalid option: {}", option);
-    }
-    Ok(OptionRemoteRoFileUnverified {
-        ino: strs[0].parse::<Inode>()?,
-        remote_id: strs[1].parse::<i32>()?,
-    })
-}
-
-fn parse_remote_new_rw_file_option(option: &str) -> Result<OptionRemoteRwFile> {
-    let strs: Vec<&str> = option.split(':').collect();
-    if strs.len() != 2 {
-        bail!("Invalid option: {}", option);
-    }
-    Ok(OptionRemoteRwFile {
-        ino: strs[0].parse::<Inode>().unwrap(),
-        remote_id: strs[1].parse::<i32>().unwrap(),
-    })
-}
-
-fn new_config_remote_verified_file(
+fn new_remote_verified_file_entry(
     service: file::VirtFdService,
-    remote_id: i32,
+    remote_fd: i32,
     file_size: u64,
-) -> Result<FileConfig> {
-    let signature = service.readFsveritySignature(remote_id).context("Failed to read signature")?;
+) -> Result<AuthFsEntry> {
+    let signature = service.readFsveritySignature(remote_fd).context("Failed to read signature")?;
 
     let authenticator = FakeAuthenticator::always_succeed();
-    Ok(FileConfig::VerifiedReadonly {
+    Ok(AuthFsEntry::VerifiedReadonly {
         reader: VerifiedFileReader::new(
             &authenticator,
-            RemoteFileReader::new(service.clone(), remote_id),
+            RemoteFileReader::new(service.clone(), remote_fd),
             file_size,
             signature,
-            RemoteMerkleTreeReader::new(service.clone(), remote_id),
+            RemoteMerkleTreeReader::new(service.clone(), remote_fd),
         )?,
         file_size,
     })
 }
 
-fn new_config_remote_unverified_file(
+fn new_remote_unverified_file_entry(
     service: file::VirtFdService,
-    remote_id: i32,
+    remote_fd: i32,
     file_size: u64,
-) -> Result<FileConfig> {
-    let reader = RemoteFileReader::new(service, remote_id);
-    Ok(FileConfig::UnverifiedReadonly { reader, file_size })
+) -> Result<AuthFsEntry> {
+    let reader = RemoteFileReader::new(service, remote_fd);
+    Ok(AuthFsEntry::UnverifiedReadonly { reader, file_size })
 }
 
-fn new_config_remote_new_verified_file(
+fn new_remote_new_verified_file_entry(
     service: file::VirtFdService,
-    remote_id: i32,
-) -> Result<FileConfig> {
-    let remote_file = RemoteFileEditor::new(service, remote_id);
-    Ok(FileConfig::VerifiedNew { editor: VerifiedFileEditor::new(remote_file) })
+    remote_fd: i32,
+) -> Result<AuthFsEntry> {
+    let remote_file = RemoteFileEditor::new(service, remote_fd);
+    Ok(AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNew { editor: VerifiedFileEditor::new(remote_file) })
 }
 
-fn prepare_file_pool(args: &Args) -> Result<BTreeMap<Inode, FileConfig>> {
-    let mut file_pool = BTreeMap::new();
+fn new_remote_new_verified_dir_entry(
+    service: file::VirtFdService,
+    remote_fd: i32,
+) -> Result<AuthFsEntry> {
+    let dir = RemoteDirEditor::new(service, remote_fd);
+    Ok(AuthFsEntry::VerifiedNewDirectory { dir })
+}
+
+fn prepare_root_dir_entries(args: &Args) -> Result<HashMap<PathBuf, AuthFsEntry>> {
+    let mut root_entries = HashMap::new();
 
     let service = file::get_rpc_binder_service(args.cid)?;
 
     for config in &args.remote_ro_file {
-        file_pool.insert(
-            config.ino,
-            new_config_remote_verified_file(
+        root_entries.insert(
+            remote_fd_to_path_buf(config.remote_fd),
+            new_remote_verified_file_entry(
                 service.clone(),
-                config.remote_id,
-                service.getFileSize(config.remote_id)?.try_into()?,
+                config.remote_fd,
+                service.getFileSize(config.remote_fd)?.try_into()?,
             )?,
         );
     }
 
-    for config in &args.remote_ro_file_unverified {
-        file_pool.insert(
-            config.ino,
-            new_config_remote_unverified_file(
+    for remote_fd in &args.remote_ro_file_unverified {
+        let remote_fd = *remote_fd;
+        root_entries.insert(
+            remote_fd_to_path_buf(remote_fd),
+            new_remote_unverified_file_entry(
                 service.clone(),
-                config.remote_id,
-                service.getFileSize(config.remote_id)?.try_into()?,
+                remote_fd,
+                service.getFileSize(remote_fd)?.try_into()?,
             )?,
         );
     }
 
-    for config in &args.remote_new_rw_file {
-        file_pool.insert(
-            config.ino,
-            new_config_remote_new_verified_file(service.clone(), config.remote_id)?,
+    for remote_fd in &args.remote_new_rw_file {
+        let remote_fd = *remote_fd;
+        root_entries.insert(
+            remote_fd_to_path_buf(remote_fd),
+            new_remote_new_verified_file_entry(service.clone(), remote_fd)?,
         );
     }
 
-    Ok(file_pool)
+    for remote_fd in &args.remote_new_rw_dir {
+        let remote_fd = *remote_fd;
+        root_entries.insert(
+            remote_fd_to_path_buf(remote_fd),
+            new_remote_new_verified_dir_entry(service.clone(), remote_fd)?,
+        );
+    }
+
+    Ok(root_entries)
+}
+
+fn remote_fd_to_path_buf(fd: i32) -> PathBuf {
+    PathBuf::from(fd.to_string())
 }
 
 fn try_main() -> Result<()> {
@@ -227,8 +219,8 @@
         android_logger::Config::default().with_tag("authfs").with_min_level(log_level),
     );
 
-    let file_pool = prepare_file_pool(&args)?;
-    fusefs::loop_forever(file_pool, &args.mount_point, &args.extra_options)?;
+    let root_entries = prepare_root_dir_entries(&args)?;
+    fusefs::loop_forever(root_entries, &args.mount_point, &args.extra_options)?;
     bail!("Unexpected exit after the handler loop")
 }
 
diff --git a/authfs/tests/AndroidTest.xml b/authfs/tests/AndroidTest.xml
index 9deab5b..643e2b4 100644
--- a/authfs/tests/AndroidTest.xml
+++ b/authfs/tests/AndroidTest.xml
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@
 
     <target_preparer class="com.android.tradefed.targetprep.RunCommandTargetPreparer">
         <option name="throw-if-cmd-fail" value="true" />
-        <!-- Prepare test directory. -->
+        <!-- Prepare test directories. -->
         <option name="run-command" value="mkdir -p /data/local/tmp/authfs/mnt" />
         <option name="teardown-command" value="rm -rf /data/local/tmp/authfs" />
     </target_preparer>
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@
         <option name="abort-on-push-failure" value="true" />
 
         <!-- Test executable -->
-        <option name="push-file" key="open_then_run" value="/data/local/tmp/authfs/open_then_run" />
+        <option name="push-file" key="open_then_run" value="/data/local/tmp/open_then_run" />
 
         <!-- Test data files -->
         <option name="push-file" key="cert.der" value="/data/local/tmp/authfs/cert.der" />
diff --git a/authfs/tests/java/src/com/android/fs/AuthFsHostTest.java b/authfs/tests/java/src/com/android/fs/AuthFsHostTest.java
index 3ed8748..8a13ef3 100644
--- a/authfs/tests/java/src/com/android/fs/AuthFsHostTest.java
+++ b/authfs/tests/java/src/com/android/fs/AuthFsHostTest.java
@@ -34,8 +34,8 @@
 import com.android.tradefed.testtype.DeviceJUnit4ClassRunner;
 import com.android.tradefed.testtype.junit4.AfterClassWithInfo;
 import com.android.tradefed.testtype.junit4.BeforeClassWithInfo;
-import com.android.tradefed.util.AbiUtils;
 import com.android.tradefed.util.CommandResult;
+import com.android.tradefed.util.CommandStatus;
 
 import org.junit.After;
 import org.junit.AssumptionViolatedException;
@@ -54,11 +54,14 @@
     /** Test directory on Android where data are located */
     private static final String TEST_DIR = "/data/local/tmp/authfs";
 
-    /** Mount point of authfs on Microdroid during the test */
-    private static final String MOUNT_DIR = "/data/local/tmp";
+    /** Output directory where the test can generate output on Android */
+    private static final String TEST_OUTPUT_DIR = "/data/local/tmp/authfs/output_dir";
 
     /** Path to open_then_run on Android */
-    private static final String OPEN_THEN_RUN_BIN = TEST_DIR + "/open_then_run";
+    private static final String OPEN_THEN_RUN_BIN = "/data/local/tmp/open_then_run";
+
+    /** Mount point of authfs on Microdroid during the test */
+    private static final String MOUNT_DIR = "/data/local/tmp";
 
     /** Path to fd_server on Android */
     private static final String FD_SERVER_BIN = "/apex/com.android.virt/bin/fd_server";
@@ -79,7 +82,6 @@
     private static boolean sAssumptionFailed;
 
     private ExecutorService mThreadPool = Executors.newCachedThreadPool();
-    private String mArch;
 
     @BeforeClassWithInfo
     public static void beforeClassWithDevice(TestInformation testInfo)
@@ -141,23 +143,22 @@
     }
 
     @Before
-    public void setUp() {
+    public void setUp() throws Exception {
         assumeFalse(sAssumptionFailed);
-        mArch = AbiUtils.getArchForAbi(getAbi().getName());
+        sAndroid.run("mkdir " + TEST_OUTPUT_DIR);
     }
 
     @After
-    public void tearDown() throws DeviceNotAvailableException {
+    public void tearDown() throws Exception {
         sAndroid.tryRun("killall fd_server");
-        sAndroid.tryRun("rm -f " + TEST_DIR + "/output");
+        sAndroid.run("rm -rf " + TEST_OUTPUT_DIR);
 
         tryRunOnMicrodroid("killall authfs");
         tryRunOnMicrodroid("umount " + MOUNT_DIR);
     }
 
     @Test
-    public void testReadWithFsverityVerification_RemoteFile()
-            throws DeviceNotAvailableException, InterruptedException {
+    public void testReadWithFsverityVerification_RemoteFile() throws Exception {
         // Setup
         runFdServerOnAndroid(
                 "--open-ro 3:input.4m --open-ro 4:input.4m.merkle_dump --open-ro 5:input.4m.fsv_sig"
@@ -165,25 +166,24 @@
                 "--ro-fds 3:4:5 --ro-fds 6");
 
         runAuthFsOnMicrodroid(
-                "--remote-ro-file-unverified 10:6 --remote-ro-file 11:3:cert.der --cid "
+                "--remote-ro-file-unverified 6 --remote-ro-file 3:cert.der --cid "
                         + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
 
         // Action
-        String actualHashUnverified4m = computeFileHashOnMicrodroid(MOUNT_DIR + "/10");
-        String actualHash4m = computeFileHashOnMicrodroid(MOUNT_DIR + "/11");
+        String actualHashUnverified4m = computeFileHashOnMicrodroid(MOUNT_DIR + "/6");
+        String actualHash4m = computeFileHashOnMicrodroid(MOUNT_DIR + "/3");
 
         // Verify
         String expectedHash4m = computeFileHashOnAndroid(TEST_DIR + "/input.4m");
 
-        assertEquals("Inconsistent hash from /authfs/10: ", expectedHash4m, actualHashUnverified4m);
-        assertEquals("Inconsistent hash from /authfs/11: ", expectedHash4m, actualHash4m);
+        assertEquals("Inconsistent hash from /authfs/6: ", expectedHash4m, actualHashUnverified4m);
+        assertEquals("Inconsistent hash from /authfs/3: ", expectedHash4m, actualHash4m);
     }
 
     // Separate the test from the above simply because exec in shell does not allow open too many
     // files.
     @Test
-    public void testReadWithFsverityVerification_RemoteSmallerFile()
-            throws DeviceNotAvailableException, InterruptedException {
+    public void testReadWithFsverityVerification_RemoteSmallerFile() throws Exception {
         // Setup
         runFdServerOnAndroid(
                 "--open-ro 3:input.4k --open-ro 4:input.4k.merkle_dump --open-ro"
@@ -191,46 +191,43 @@
                     + " --open-ro 8:input.4k1.fsv_sig",
                 "--ro-fds 3:4:5 --ro-fds 6:7:8");
         runAuthFsOnMicrodroid(
-                "--remote-ro-file 10:3:cert.der --remote-ro-file 11:6:cert.der --cid "
-                        + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
+                "--remote-ro-file 3:cert.der --remote-ro-file 6:cert.der --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
 
         // Action
-        String actualHash4k = computeFileHashOnMicrodroid(MOUNT_DIR + "/10");
-        String actualHash4k1 = computeFileHashOnMicrodroid(MOUNT_DIR + "/11");
+        String actualHash4k = computeFileHashOnMicrodroid(MOUNT_DIR + "/3");
+        String actualHash4k1 = computeFileHashOnMicrodroid(MOUNT_DIR + "/6");
 
         // Verify
         String expectedHash4k = computeFileHashOnAndroid(TEST_DIR + "/input.4k");
         String expectedHash4k1 = computeFileHashOnAndroid(TEST_DIR + "/input.4k1");
 
-        assertEquals("Inconsistent hash from /authfs/10: ", expectedHash4k, actualHash4k);
-        assertEquals("Inconsistent hash from /authfs/11: ", expectedHash4k1, actualHash4k1);
+        assertEquals("Inconsistent hash from /authfs/3: ", expectedHash4k, actualHash4k);
+        assertEquals("Inconsistent hash from /authfs/6: ", expectedHash4k1, actualHash4k1);
     }
 
     @Test
-    public void testReadWithFsverityVerification_TamperedMerkleTree()
-            throws DeviceNotAvailableException, InterruptedException {
+    public void testReadWithFsverityVerification_TamperedMerkleTree() throws Exception {
         // Setup
         runFdServerOnAndroid(
                 "--open-ro 3:input.4m --open-ro 4:input.4m.merkle_dump.bad "
                         + "--open-ro 5:input.4m.fsv_sig",
                 "--ro-fds 3:4:5");
-        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-ro-file 10:3:cert.der --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
+        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-ro-file 3:cert.der --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
 
         // Verify
-        assertFalse(copyFileOnMicrodroid(MOUNT_DIR + "/10", "/dev/null"));
+        assertFalse(copyFileOnMicrodroid(MOUNT_DIR + "/3", "/dev/null"));
     }
 
     @Test
-    public void testWriteThroughCorrectly()
-            throws DeviceNotAvailableException, InterruptedException {
+    public void testWriteThroughCorrectly() throws Exception {
         // Setup
-        runFdServerOnAndroid("--open-rw 3:output", "--rw-fds 3");
-        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-new-rw-file 20:3 --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
+        runFdServerOnAndroid("--open-rw 3:" + TEST_OUTPUT_DIR + "/out.file", "--rw-fds 3");
+        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-new-rw-file 3 --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
 
         // Action
         String srcPath = "/system/bin/linker64";
-        String destPath = MOUNT_DIR + "/20";
-        String backendPath = TEST_DIR + "/output";
+        String destPath = MOUNT_DIR + "/3";
+        String backendPath = TEST_OUTPUT_DIR + "/out.file";
         assertTrue(copyFileOnMicrodroid(srcPath, destPath));
 
         // Verify
@@ -239,15 +236,14 @@
     }
 
     @Test
-    public void testWriteFailedIfDetectsTampering()
-            throws DeviceNotAvailableException, InterruptedException {
+    public void testWriteFailedIfDetectsTampering() throws Exception {
         // Setup
-        runFdServerOnAndroid("--open-rw 3:output", "--rw-fds 3");
-        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-new-rw-file 20:3 --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
+        runFdServerOnAndroid("--open-rw 3:" + TEST_OUTPUT_DIR + "/out.file", "--rw-fds 3");
+        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-new-rw-file 3 --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
 
         String srcPath = "/system/bin/linker64";
-        String destPath = MOUNT_DIR + "/20";
-        String backendPath = TEST_DIR + "/output";
+        String destPath = MOUNT_DIR + "/3";
+        String backendPath = TEST_OUTPUT_DIR + "/out.file";
         assertTrue(copyFileOnMicrodroid(srcPath, destPath));
 
         // Action
@@ -258,28 +254,32 @@
         // Write to a block partially requires a read back to calculate the new hash. It should fail
         // when the content is inconsistent to the known hash. Use direct I/O to avoid simply
         // writing to the filesystem cache.
-        assertEquals(
-                tryRunOnMicrodroid("dd if=/dev/zero of=" + destPath + " bs=1 count=1024 direct"),
-                null);
+        assertFalse(
+                writeZerosAtFileOffsetOnMicrodroid(
+                        destPath, /* offset */ 0, /* number */ 1024, /* writeThrough */ true));
 
         // A full 4K write does not require to read back, so write can succeed even if the backing
         // block has already been tampered.
-        runOnMicrodroid("dd if=/dev/zero of=" + destPath + " bs=1 count=4096 skip=4096");
+        assertTrue(
+                writeZerosAtFileOffsetOnMicrodroid(
+                        destPath, /* offset */ 4096, /* number */ 4096, /* writeThrough */ false));
 
         // Otherwise, a partial write with correct backing file should still succeed.
-        runOnMicrodroid("dd if=/dev/zero of=" + destPath + " bs=1 count=1024 skip=8192");
+        assertTrue(
+                writeZerosAtFileOffsetOnMicrodroid(
+                        destPath, /* offset */ 8192, /* number */ 1024, /* writeThrough */ false));
     }
 
     @Test
-    public void testFileResize() throws DeviceNotAvailableException, InterruptedException {
+    public void testFileResize() throws Exception {
         // Setup
-        runFdServerOnAndroid("--open-rw 3:output", "--rw-fds 3");
-        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-new-rw-file 20:3 --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
-        String outputPath = MOUNT_DIR + "/20";
-        String backendPath = TEST_DIR + "/output";
+        runFdServerOnAndroid("--open-rw 3:" + TEST_OUTPUT_DIR + "/out.file", "--rw-fds 3");
+        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-new-rw-file 3 --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
+        String outputPath = MOUNT_DIR + "/3";
+        String backendPath = TEST_OUTPUT_DIR + "/out.file";
 
         // Action & Verify
-        runOnMicrodroid("yes $'\\x01' | tr -d '\\n' | dd bs=1 count=10000 of=" + outputPath);
+        createFileWithOnesOnMicrodroid(outputPath, 10000);
         assertEquals(getFileSizeInBytesOnMicrodroid(outputPath), 10000);
         expectBackingFileConsistency(
                 outputPath,
@@ -301,6 +301,112 @@
                 "e53130831c13dabff71d5d1797e3aaa467b4b7d32b3b8782c4ff03d76976f2aa");
     }
 
+    @Test
+    public void testOutputDirectory_WriteNewFiles() throws Exception {
+        // Setup
+        String androidOutputDir = TEST_OUTPUT_DIR + "/dir";
+        String authfsOutputDir = MOUNT_DIR + "/3";
+        sAndroid.run("mkdir " + androidOutputDir);
+        runFdServerOnAndroid("--open-dir 3:" + androidOutputDir, "--rw-dirs 3");
+        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-new-rw-dir 3 --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
+
+        // Action & Verify
+        // Can create a new file to write.
+        String expectedAndroidPath = androidOutputDir + "/file";
+        String authfsPath = authfsOutputDir + "/file";
+        createFileWithOnesOnMicrodroid(authfsPath, 10000);
+        assertEquals(getFileSizeInBytesOnMicrodroid(authfsPath), 10000);
+        expectBackingFileConsistency(
+                authfsPath,
+                expectedAndroidPath,
+                "684ad25fdc2bbb80cbc910dd1bde6d5499ccf860ca6ee44704b77ec445271353");
+
+        // Regular file operations work, e.g. resize.
+        resizeFileOnMicrodroid(authfsPath, 15000);
+        assertEquals(getFileSizeInBytesOnMicrodroid(authfsPath), 15000);
+        expectBackingFileConsistency(
+                authfsPath,
+                expectedAndroidPath,
+                "567c89f62586e0d33369157afdfe99a2fa36cdffb01e91dcdc0b7355262d610d");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOutputDirectory_MkdirAndWriteFile() throws Exception {
+        // Setup
+        String androidOutputDir = TEST_OUTPUT_DIR + "/dir";
+        String authfsOutputDir = MOUNT_DIR + "/3";
+        sAndroid.run("mkdir " + androidOutputDir);
+        runFdServerOnAndroid("--open-dir 3:" + androidOutputDir, "--rw-dirs 3");
+        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-new-rw-dir 3 --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
+
+        // Action
+        // Can create nested directories and can create a file in one.
+        runOnMicrodroid("mkdir " + authfsOutputDir + "/new_dir");
+        runOnMicrodroid("mkdir -p " + authfsOutputDir + "/we/need/to/go/deeper");
+        createFileWithOnesOnMicrodroid(authfsOutputDir + "/new_dir/file1", 10000);
+        createFileWithOnesOnMicrodroid(authfsOutputDir + "/we/need/file2", 10000);
+
+        // Verify
+        // Directories show up in Android.
+        sAndroid.run("test -d " + androidOutputDir + "/new_dir");
+        sAndroid.run("test -d " + androidOutputDir + "/we/need/to/go/deeper");
+        // Files exist in Android. Hashes on Microdroid and Android are consistent.
+        assertEquals(getFileSizeInBytesOnMicrodroid(authfsOutputDir + "/new_dir/file1"), 10000);
+        expectBackingFileConsistency(
+                authfsOutputDir + "/new_dir/file1",
+                androidOutputDir + "/new_dir/file1",
+                "684ad25fdc2bbb80cbc910dd1bde6d5499ccf860ca6ee44704b77ec445271353");
+        // Same to file in a nested directory.
+        assertEquals(getFileSizeInBytesOnMicrodroid(authfsOutputDir + "/we/need/file2"), 10000);
+        expectBackingFileConsistency(
+                authfsOutputDir + "/we/need/file2",
+                androidOutputDir + "/we/need/file2",
+                "684ad25fdc2bbb80cbc910dd1bde6d5499ccf860ca6ee44704b77ec445271353");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOutputDirectory_CreateAndTruncateExistingFile() throws Exception {
+        // Setup
+        String androidOutputDir = TEST_OUTPUT_DIR + "/dir";
+        String authfsOutputDir = MOUNT_DIR + "/3";
+        sAndroid.run("mkdir " + androidOutputDir);
+        runFdServerOnAndroid("--open-dir 3:" + androidOutputDir, "--rw-dirs 3");
+        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-new-rw-dir 3 --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
+
+        // Action & Verify
+        runOnMicrodroid("echo -n foo > " + authfsOutputDir + "/file");
+        assertEquals(getFileSizeInBytesOnMicrodroid(authfsOutputDir + "/file"), 3);
+        // Can override a file and write normally.
+        createFileWithOnesOnMicrodroid(authfsOutputDir + "/file", 10000);
+        assertEquals(getFileSizeInBytesOnMicrodroid(authfsOutputDir + "/file"), 10000);
+        expectBackingFileConsistency(
+                authfsOutputDir + "/file",
+                androidOutputDir + "/file",
+                "684ad25fdc2bbb80cbc910dd1bde6d5499ccf860ca6ee44704b77ec445271353");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOutputDirectory_CannotRecreateDirectoryIfNameExists() throws Exception {
+        // Setup
+        String androidOutputDir = TEST_OUTPUT_DIR + "/dir";
+        String authfsOutputDir = MOUNT_DIR + "/3";
+        sAndroid.run("mkdir " + androidOutputDir);
+        runFdServerOnAndroid("--open-dir 3:" + androidOutputDir, "--rw-dirs 3");
+        runAuthFsOnMicrodroid("--remote-new-rw-dir 3 --cid " + VMADDR_CID_HOST);
+
+        runOnMicrodroid("touch " + authfsOutputDir + "/some_file");
+        runOnMicrodroid("mkdir " + authfsOutputDir + "/some_dir");
+        runOnMicrodroid("touch " + authfsOutputDir + "/some_dir/file");
+        runOnMicrodroid("mkdir " + authfsOutputDir + "/some_dir/dir");
+
+        // Action & Verify
+        // Cannot create directory if an entry with the same name already exists.
+        assertFailedOnMicrodroid("mkdir " + authfsOutputDir + "/some_file");
+        assertFailedOnMicrodroid("mkdir " + authfsOutputDir + "/some_dir");
+        assertFailedOnMicrodroid("mkdir " + authfsOutputDir + "/some_dir/file");
+        assertFailedOnMicrodroid("mkdir " + authfsOutputDir + "/some_dir/dir");
+    }
+
     private void expectBackingFileConsistency(
             String authFsPath, String backendPath, String expectedHash)
             throws DeviceNotAvailableException {
@@ -350,6 +456,24 @@
         return Long.parseLong(runOnMicrodroid("stat -c '%s' " + path));
     }
 
+    private void createFileWithOnesOnMicrodroid(String filePath, long numberOfOnes) {
+        runOnMicrodroid(
+                "yes $'\\x01' | tr -d '\\n' | dd bs=1 count=" + numberOfOnes + " of=" + filePath);
+    }
+
+    private boolean writeZerosAtFileOffsetOnMicrodroid(
+            String filePath, long offset, long numberOfZeros, boolean writeThrough) {
+        String cmd = "dd if=/dev/zero of=" + filePath + " bs=1 count=" + numberOfZeros;
+        if (offset > 0) {
+            cmd += " skip=" + offset;
+        }
+        if (writeThrough) {
+            cmd += " direct";
+        }
+        CommandResult result = runOnMicrodroidForResult(cmd);
+        return result.getStatus() == CommandStatus.SUCCESS;
+    }
+
     private void runAuthFsOnMicrodroid(String flags) {
         String cmd = AUTHFS_BIN + " " + MOUNT_DIR + " " + flags;
 
diff --git a/authfs/tests/open_then_run.rs b/authfs/tests/open_then_run.rs
index 3e6ae71..fca8953 100644
--- a/authfs/tests/open_then_run.rs
+++ b/authfs/tests/open_then_run.rs
@@ -122,8 +122,13 @@
         // them for the provided program, and are not supposed to do anything else.
         OpenOptions::new()
             .custom_flags(libc::O_PATH | libc::O_DIRECTORY)
+            // The custom flags above is not taken into consideration by the unix implementation of
+            // OpenOptions for flag validation. So even though the man page of open(2) says that
+            // most flags include access mode are ignored, we still need to set a "valid" mode to
+            // make the library happy. The value does not appear to matter elsewhere in the library.
+            .read(true)
             .open(path)
-            .with_context(|| format!("Open {} directory", path))
+            .with_context(|| format!("Open {} directory as path", path))
     })?;
 
     let cmdline_args: Vec<_> = matches.values_of("args").unwrap().map(|s| s.to_string()).collect();
diff --git a/tests/hostside/helper/java/android/virt/test/VirtualizationTestCaseBase.java b/tests/hostside/helper/java/android/virt/test/VirtualizationTestCaseBase.java
index b3a76ce..8d9a7e3 100644
--- a/tests/hostside/helper/java/android/virt/test/VirtualizationTestCaseBase.java
+++ b/tests/hostside/helper/java/android/virt/test/VirtualizationTestCaseBase.java
@@ -152,6 +152,12 @@
                 .runTimedCmd(timeout, "adb", "-s", MICRODROID_SERIAL, "shell", join(cmd));
     }
 
+    // Asserts the command will fail on Microdroid.
+    public static void assertFailedOnMicrodroid(String... cmd) {
+        CommandResult result = runOnMicrodroidForResult(cmd);
+        assertThat(result.getStatus(), is(CommandStatus.FAILED));
+    }
+
     private static String join(String... strs) {
         return String.join(" ", Arrays.asList(strs));
     }