diff --git a/core/java/android/net/LinkProperties.java b/core/java/android/net/LinkProperties.java
index 2c356e4..7ff954b 100644
--- a/core/java/android/net/LinkProperties.java
+++ b/core/java/android/net/LinkProperties.java
@@ -690,9 +690,9 @@
             route.getMtu());
     }
 
-    private int findRouteIndexByDestination(RouteInfo route) {
+    private int findRouteIndexByRouteKey(RouteInfo route) {
         for (int i = 0; i < mRoutes.size(); i++) {
-            if (mRoutes.get(i).isSameDestinationAs(route)) {
+            if (mRoutes.get(i).getRouteKey().equals(route.getRouteKey())) {
                 return i;
             }
         }
@@ -701,11 +701,11 @@
 
     /**
      * Adds a {@link RouteInfo} to this {@code LinkProperties}, if a {@link RouteInfo}
-     * with the same destination exists with different properties (e.g., different MTU),
-     * it will be updated. If the {@link RouteInfo} had an interface name set and
-     * that differs from the interface set for this {@code LinkProperties} an
-     * {@link IllegalArgumentException} will be thrown.  The proper
-     * course is to add either un-named or properly named {@link RouteInfo}.
+     * with the same {@link RouteInfo.RouteKey} with different properties
+     * (e.g., different MTU), it will be updated. If the {@link RouteInfo} had an
+     * interface name set and that differs from the interface set for this
+     * {@code LinkProperties} an {@link IllegalArgumentException} will be thrown.
+     * The proper course is to add either un-named or properly named {@link RouteInfo}.
      *
      * @param route A {@link RouteInfo} to add to this object.
      * @return {@code true} was added or updated, false otherwise.
@@ -719,7 +719,7 @@
         }
         route = routeWithInterface(route);
 
-        int i = findRouteIndexByDestination(route);
+        int i = findRouteIndexByRouteKey(route);
         if (i == -1) {
             // Route was not present. Add it.
             mRoutes.add(route);
diff --git a/core/java/android/net/Network.java b/core/java/android/net/Network.java
index c145b2b..3d641f5 100644
--- a/core/java/android/net/Network.java
+++ b/core/java/android/net/Network.java
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@
 import android.system.OsConstants;
 import android.util.proto.ProtoOutputStream;
 
+import com.android.internal.annotations.GuardedBy;
 import com.android.okhttp.internalandroidapi.Dns;
 import com.android.okhttp.internalandroidapi.HttpURLConnectionFactory;
 
@@ -64,15 +65,15 @@
      * The unique id of the network.
      * @hide
      */
-    @SystemApi
+    @UnsupportedAppUsage
     public final int netId;
 
     // Objects used to perform per-network operations such as getSocketFactory
     // and openConnection, and a lock to protect access to them.
     private volatile NetworkBoundSocketFactory mNetworkBoundSocketFactory = null;
-    // mLock should be used to control write access to mUrlConnectionFactory.
-    // maybeInitUrlConnectionFactory() must be called prior to reading this field.
-    private volatile HttpURLConnectionFactory mUrlConnectionFactory;
+    // mUrlConnectionFactory is initialized lazily when it is first needed.
+    @GuardedBy("mLock")
+    private HttpURLConnectionFactory mUrlConnectionFactory;
     private final Object mLock = new Object();
 
     // Default connection pool values. These are evaluated at startup, just
@@ -170,6 +171,17 @@
     }
 
     /**
+     * Get the unique id of the network.
+     *
+     * @hide
+     */
+    @TestApi
+    @SystemApi
+    public int getNetId() {
+        return netId;
+    }
+
+    /**
      * Returns a netid marked with the Private DNS bypass flag.
      *
      * This flag must be kept in sync with the NETID_USE_LOCAL_NAMESERVERS flag
@@ -284,36 +296,16 @@
         return mNetworkBoundSocketFactory;
     }
 
-    // TODO: This creates a connection pool and host resolver for
-    // every Network object, instead of one for every NetId. This is
-    // suboptimal, because an app could potentially have more than one
-    // Network object for the same NetId, causing increased memory footprint
-    // and performance penalties due to lack of connection reuse (connection
-    // setup time, congestion window growth time, etc.).
-    //
-    // Instead, investigate only having one connection pool and host resolver
-    // for every NetId, perhaps by using a static HashMap of NetIds to
-    // connection pools and host resolvers. The tricky part is deciding when
-    // to remove a map entry; a WeakHashMap shouldn't be used because whether
-    // a Network is referenced doesn't correlate with whether a new Network
-    // will be instantiated in the near future with the same NetID. A good
-    // solution would involve purging empty (or when all connections are timed
-    // out) ConnectionPools.
-    private void maybeInitUrlConnectionFactory() {
-        synchronized (mLock) {
-            if (mUrlConnectionFactory == null) {
-                // Set configuration on the HttpURLConnectionFactory that will be good for all
-                // connections created by this Network. Configuration that might vary is left
-                // until openConnection() and passed as arguments.
-                Dns dnsLookup = hostname -> Arrays.asList(Network.this.getAllByName(hostname));
-                HttpURLConnectionFactory urlConnectionFactory = new HttpURLConnectionFactory();
-                urlConnectionFactory.setDns(dnsLookup); // Let traffic go via dnsLookup
-                // A private connection pool just for this Network.
-                urlConnectionFactory.setNewConnectionPool(httpMaxConnections,
-                        httpKeepAliveDurationMs, TimeUnit.MILLISECONDS);
-                mUrlConnectionFactory = urlConnectionFactory;
-            }
-        }
+    private static HttpURLConnectionFactory createUrlConnectionFactory(Dns dnsLookup) {
+        // Set configuration on the HttpURLConnectionFactory that will be good for all
+        // connections created by this Network. Configuration that might vary is left
+        // until openConnection() and passed as arguments.
+        HttpURLConnectionFactory urlConnectionFactory = new HttpURLConnectionFactory();
+        urlConnectionFactory.setDns(dnsLookup); // Let traffic go via dnsLookup
+        // A private connection pool just for this Network.
+        urlConnectionFactory.setNewConnectionPool(httpMaxConnections,
+                httpKeepAliveDurationMs, TimeUnit.MILLISECONDS);
+        return urlConnectionFactory;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -354,9 +346,31 @@
      */
     public URLConnection openConnection(URL url, java.net.Proxy proxy) throws IOException {
         if (proxy == null) throw new IllegalArgumentException("proxy is null");
-        maybeInitUrlConnectionFactory();
+        // TODO: This creates a connection pool and host resolver for
+        // every Network object, instead of one for every NetId. This is
+        // suboptimal, because an app could potentially have more than one
+        // Network object for the same NetId, causing increased memory footprint
+        // and performance penalties due to lack of connection reuse (connection
+        // setup time, congestion window growth time, etc.).
+        //
+        // Instead, investigate only having one connection pool and host resolver
+        // for every NetId, perhaps by using a static HashMap of NetIds to
+        // connection pools and host resolvers. The tricky part is deciding when
+        // to remove a map entry; a WeakHashMap shouldn't be used because whether
+        // a Network is referenced doesn't correlate with whether a new Network
+        // will be instantiated in the near future with the same NetID. A good
+        // solution would involve purging empty (or when all connections are timed
+        // out) ConnectionPools.
+        final HttpURLConnectionFactory urlConnectionFactory;
+        synchronized (mLock) {
+            if (mUrlConnectionFactory == null) {
+                Dns dnsLookup = hostname -> Arrays.asList(getAllByName(hostname));
+                mUrlConnectionFactory = createUrlConnectionFactory(dnsLookup);
+            }
+            urlConnectionFactory = mUrlConnectionFactory;
+        }
         SocketFactory socketFactory = getSocketFactory();
-        return mUrlConnectionFactory.openConnection(url, socketFactory, proxy);
+        return urlConnectionFactory.openConnection(url, socketFactory, proxy);
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/core/java/android/net/NetworkCapabilities.java b/core/java/android/net/NetworkCapabilities.java
index ae5c24e..64e9350 100644
--- a/core/java/android/net/NetworkCapabilities.java
+++ b/core/java/android/net/NetworkCapabilities.java
@@ -412,6 +412,20 @@
             | (1 << NET_CAPABILITY_PARTIAL_CONNECTIVITY);
 
     /**
+     * Capabilities that are allowed for test networks. This list must be set so that it is safe
+     * for an unprivileged user to create a network with these capabilities via shell. As such,
+     * it must never contain capabilities that are generally useful to the system, such as
+     * INTERNET, IMS, SUPL, etc.
+     */
+    private static final long TEST_NETWORKS_ALLOWED_CAPABILITIES =
+            (1 << NET_CAPABILITY_NOT_METERED)
+            | (1 << NET_CAPABILITY_NOT_RESTRICTED)
+            | (1 << NET_CAPABILITY_NOT_VPN)
+            | (1 << NET_CAPABILITY_NOT_ROAMING)
+            | (1 << NET_CAPABILITY_NOT_CONGESTED)
+            | (1 << NET_CAPABILITY_NOT_SUSPENDED);
+
+    /**
      * Adds the given capability to this {@code NetworkCapability} instance.
      * Multiple capabilities may be applied sequentially.  Note that when searching
      * for a network to satisfy a request, all capabilities requested must be satisfied.
@@ -641,6 +655,21 @@
     }
 
     /**
+     * Test networks have strong restrictions on what capabilities they can have. Enforce these
+     * restrictions.
+     * @hide
+     */
+    public void restrictCapabilitesForTestNetwork() {
+        final long originalCapabilities = mNetworkCapabilities;
+        final NetworkSpecifier originalSpecifier = mNetworkSpecifier;
+        clearAll();
+        // Reset the transports to only contain TRANSPORT_TEST.
+        mTransportTypes = (1 << TRANSPORT_TEST);
+        mNetworkCapabilities = originalCapabilities & TEST_NETWORKS_ALLOWED_CAPABILITIES;
+        mNetworkSpecifier = originalSpecifier;
+    }
+
+    /**
      * Representing the transport type.  Apps should generally not care about transport.  A
      * request for a fast internet connection could be satisfied by a number of different
      * transports.  If any are specified here it will be satisfied a Network that matches
diff --git a/core/java/android/net/RouteInfo.java b/core/java/android/net/RouteInfo.java
index fec2df4..dbdaa4c 100644
--- a/core/java/android/net/RouteInfo.java
+++ b/core/java/android/net/RouteInfo.java
@@ -26,6 +26,7 @@
 import android.os.Build;
 import android.os.Parcel;
 import android.os.Parcelable;
+import android.util.Pair;
 
 import java.lang.annotation.Retention;
 import java.lang.annotation.RetentionPolicy;
@@ -527,23 +528,27 @@
     }
 
     /**
-     * Compares this RouteInfo object against the specified object and indicates if the
-     * destinations of both routes are equal.
-     * @return {@code true} if the route destinations are equal, {@code false} otherwise.
+     * A helper class that contains the destination and the gateway in a {@code RouteInfo},
+     * used by {@link ConnectivityService#updateRoutes} or
+     * {@link LinkProperties#addRoute} to calculate the list to be updated.
      *
      * @hide
      */
-    public boolean isSameDestinationAs(@Nullable Object obj) {
-        if (this == obj) return true;
-
-        if (!(obj instanceof RouteInfo)) return false;
-
-        RouteInfo target = (RouteInfo) obj;
-
-        if (Objects.equals(mDestination, target.getDestination())) {
-            return true;
+    public static class RouteKey extends Pair<IpPrefix, InetAddress> {
+        RouteKey(@NonNull IpPrefix destination, @Nullable InetAddress gateway) {
+            super(destination, gateway);
         }
-        return false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get {@code RouteKey} of this {@code RouteInfo}.
+     * @return a {@code RouteKey} object.
+     *
+     * @hide
+     */
+    @NonNull
+    public RouteKey getRouteKey() {
+        return new RouteKey(mDestination, mGateway);
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/services/core/java/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java b/services/core/java/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java
index 1ec4bc3..1309740 100644
--- a/services/core/java/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java
+++ b/services/core/java/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java
@@ -40,6 +40,7 @@
 import static android.net.NetworkCapabilities.NET_CAPABILITY_PARTIAL_CONNECTIVITY;
 import static android.net.NetworkCapabilities.NET_CAPABILITY_VALIDATED;
 import static android.net.NetworkCapabilities.TRANSPORT_CELLULAR;
+import static android.net.NetworkCapabilities.TRANSPORT_TEST;
 import static android.net.NetworkCapabilities.TRANSPORT_VPN;
 import static android.net.NetworkPolicyManager.RULE_NONE;
 import static android.net.NetworkPolicyManager.uidRulesToString;
@@ -52,6 +53,7 @@
 
 import static java.util.Map.Entry;
 
+import android.Manifest;
 import android.annotation.NonNull;
 import android.annotation.Nullable;
 import android.app.AppOpsManager;
@@ -236,7 +238,6 @@
 import java.util.StringJoiner;
 import java.util.TreeSet;
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
-import java.util.function.Function;
 
 /**
  * @hide
@@ -2696,10 +2697,18 @@
 
             switch (msg.what) {
                 case NetworkAgent.EVENT_NETWORK_CAPABILITIES_CHANGED: {
-                    final NetworkCapabilities networkCapabilities = (NetworkCapabilities) msg.obj;
+                    NetworkCapabilities networkCapabilities = (NetworkCapabilities) msg.obj;
                     if (networkCapabilities.hasConnectivityManagedCapability()) {
                         Slog.wtf(TAG, "BUG: " + nai + " has CS-managed capability.");
                     }
+                    if (networkCapabilities.hasTransport(TRANSPORT_TEST)) {
+                        // Make sure the original object is not mutated. NetworkAgent normally
+                        // makes a copy of the capabilities when sending the message through
+                        // the Messenger, but if this ever changes, not making a defensive copy
+                        // here will give attack vectors to clients using this code path.
+                        networkCapabilities = new NetworkCapabilities(networkCapabilities);
+                        networkCapabilities.restrictCapabilitesForTestNetwork();
+                    }
                     updateCapabilities(nai.getCurrentScore(), nai, networkCapabilities);
                     break;
                 }
@@ -5772,7 +5781,16 @@
     public Network registerNetworkAgent(Messenger messenger, NetworkInfo networkInfo,
             LinkProperties linkProperties, NetworkCapabilities networkCapabilities,
             int currentScore, NetworkAgentConfig networkAgentConfig, int providerId) {
-        enforceNetworkFactoryPermission();
+        if (networkCapabilities.hasTransport(TRANSPORT_TEST)) {
+            enforceAnyPermissionOf(Manifest.permission.MANAGE_TEST_NETWORKS);
+            // Strictly, sanitizing here is unnecessary as the capabilities will be sanitized in
+            // the call to mixInCapabilities below anyway, but sanitizing here means the NAI never
+            // sees capabilities that may be malicious, which might prevent mistakes in the future.
+            networkCapabilities = new NetworkCapabilities(networkCapabilities);
+            networkCapabilities.restrictCapabilitesForTestNetwork();
+        } else {
+            enforceNetworkFactoryPermission();
+        }
 
         LinkProperties lp = new LinkProperties(linkProperties);
         lp.ensureDirectlyConnectedRoutes();
@@ -5982,12 +6000,12 @@
      * @return true if routes changed between oldLp and newLp
      */
     private boolean updateRoutes(LinkProperties newLp, LinkProperties oldLp, int netId) {
-        Function<RouteInfo, IpPrefix> getDestination = (r) -> r.getDestination();
         // compare the route diff to determine which routes have been updated
-        CompareOrUpdateResult<IpPrefix, RouteInfo> routeDiff = new CompareOrUpdateResult<>(
-                oldLp != null ? oldLp.getAllRoutes() : null,
-                newLp != null ? newLp.getAllRoutes() : null,
-                getDestination);
+        final CompareOrUpdateResult<RouteInfo.RouteKey, RouteInfo> routeDiff =
+                new CompareOrUpdateResult<>(
+                        oldLp != null ? oldLp.getAllRoutes() : null,
+                        newLp != null ? newLp.getAllRoutes() : null,
+                        (r) -> r.getRouteKey());
 
         // add routes before removing old in case it helps with continuous connectivity
 
diff --git a/tests/net/java/com/android/server/ConnectivityServiceTest.java b/tests/net/java/com/android/server/ConnectivityServiceTest.java
index 0e592d9..83399b8 100644
--- a/tests/net/java/com/android/server/ConnectivityServiceTest.java
+++ b/tests/net/java/com/android/server/ConnectivityServiceTest.java
@@ -429,7 +429,6 @@
         public Object getSystemService(String name) {
             if (Context.CONNECTIVITY_SERVICE.equals(name)) return mCm;
             if (Context.NOTIFICATION_SERVICE.equals(name)) return mNotificationManager;
-            if (Context.NETWORK_STACK_SERVICE.equals(name)) return mNetworkStack;
             if (Context.USER_SERVICE.equals(name)) return mUserManager;
             if (Context.ALARM_SERVICE.equals(name)) return mAlarmManager;
             if (Context.LOCATION_SERVICE.equals(name)) return mLocationManager;
diff --git a/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceParameterizedTest.java b/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceParameterizedTest.java
index 71b72b8..23098ec 100644
--- a/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceParameterizedTest.java
+++ b/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceParameterizedTest.java
@@ -46,6 +46,7 @@
 import android.net.Network;
 import android.net.NetworkUtils;
 import android.os.Binder;
+import android.os.INetworkManagementService;
 import android.os.ParcelFileDescriptor;
 import android.system.Os;
 import android.test.mock.MockContext;
@@ -135,6 +136,7 @@
     };
 
     INetd mMockNetd;
+    INetworkManagementService mNetworkManager;
     PackageManager mMockPkgMgr;
     IpSecService.IpSecServiceConfiguration mMockIpSecSrvConfig;
     IpSecService mIpSecService;
@@ -160,9 +162,10 @@
     @Before
     public void setUp() throws Exception {
         mMockNetd = mock(INetd.class);
+        mNetworkManager = mock(INetworkManagementService.class);
         mMockPkgMgr = mock(PackageManager.class);
         mMockIpSecSrvConfig = mock(IpSecService.IpSecServiceConfiguration.class);
-        mIpSecService = new IpSecService(mMockContext, mMockIpSecSrvConfig);
+        mIpSecService = new IpSecService(mMockContext, mNetworkManager, mMockIpSecSrvConfig);
 
         // Injecting mock netd
         when(mMockIpSecSrvConfig.getNetdInstance()).thenReturn(mMockNetd);
@@ -609,6 +612,7 @@
                         anyInt(),
                         anyInt(),
                         anyInt());
+        verify(mNetworkManager).setInterfaceUp(createTunnelResp.interfaceName);
     }
 
     @Test
diff --git a/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceRefcountedResourceTest.java b/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceRefcountedResourceTest.java
index 22a2c94..788e4ef 100644
--- a/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceRefcountedResourceTest.java
+++ b/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceRefcountedResourceTest.java
@@ -31,6 +31,7 @@
 import android.content.Context;
 import android.os.Binder;
 import android.os.IBinder;
+import android.os.INetworkManagementService;
 import android.os.RemoteException;
 
 import androidx.test.filters.SmallTest;
@@ -61,7 +62,8 @@
     public void setUp() throws Exception {
         mMockContext = mock(Context.class);
         mMockIpSecSrvConfig = mock(IpSecService.IpSecServiceConfiguration.class);
-        mIpSecService = new IpSecService(mMockContext, mMockIpSecSrvConfig);
+        mIpSecService = new IpSecService(
+                mMockContext, mock(INetworkManagementService.class), mMockIpSecSrvConfig);
     }
 
     private void assertResourceState(
diff --git a/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceTest.java b/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceTest.java
index 4a35015..536e983 100644
--- a/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceTest.java
+++ b/tests/net/java/com/android/server/IpSecServiceTest.java
@@ -42,6 +42,7 @@
 import android.net.IpSecSpiResponse;
 import android.net.IpSecUdpEncapResponse;
 import android.os.Binder;
+import android.os.INetworkManagementService;
 import android.os.ParcelFileDescriptor;
 import android.os.Process;
 import android.system.ErrnoException;
@@ -115,6 +116,7 @@
     }
 
     Context mMockContext;
+    INetworkManagementService mMockNetworkManager;
     INetd mMockNetd;
     IpSecService.IpSecServiceConfiguration mMockIpSecSrvConfig;
     IpSecService mIpSecService;
@@ -122,9 +124,10 @@
     @Before
     public void setUp() throws Exception {
         mMockContext = mock(Context.class);
+        mMockNetworkManager = mock(INetworkManagementService.class);
         mMockNetd = mock(INetd.class);
         mMockIpSecSrvConfig = mock(IpSecService.IpSecServiceConfiguration.class);
-        mIpSecService = new IpSecService(mMockContext, mMockIpSecSrvConfig);
+        mIpSecService = new IpSecService(mMockContext, mMockNetworkManager, mMockIpSecSrvConfig);
 
         // Injecting mock netd
         when(mMockIpSecSrvConfig.getNetdInstance()).thenReturn(mMockNetd);
@@ -132,7 +135,7 @@
 
     @Test
     public void testIpSecServiceCreate() throws InterruptedException {
-        IpSecService ipSecSrv = IpSecService.create(mMockContext);
+        IpSecService ipSecSrv = IpSecService.create(mMockContext, mMockNetworkManager);
         assertNotNull(ipSecSrv);
     }
 
@@ -604,8 +607,8 @@
     @Test
     public void testOpenUdpEncapSocketTagsSocket() throws Exception {
         IpSecService.UidFdTagger mockTagger = mock(IpSecService.UidFdTagger.class);
-        IpSecService testIpSecService =
-                new IpSecService(mMockContext, mMockIpSecSrvConfig, mockTagger);
+        IpSecService testIpSecService = new IpSecService(
+                mMockContext, mMockNetworkManager, mMockIpSecSrvConfig, mockTagger);
 
         IpSecUdpEncapResponse udpEncapResp =
                 testIpSecService.openUdpEncapsulationSocket(0, new Binder());