diff --git a/framework/api/system-current.txt b/framework/api/system-current.txt
index 0b03983..196e023 100644
--- a/framework/api/system-current.txt
+++ b/framework/api/system-current.txt
@@ -470,7 +470,7 @@
   }
 
   public abstract class SocketKeepalive implements java.lang.AutoCloseable {
-    method public final void start(@IntRange(from=0xa, to=0xe10) int, int);
+    method public final void start(@IntRange(from=0xa, to=0xe10) int, int, @NonNull android.net.Network);
     field public static final int ERROR_NO_SUCH_SLOT = -33; // 0xffffffdf
     field public static final int FLAG_AUTOMATIC_ON_OFF = 1; // 0x1
     field public static final int SUCCESS = 0; // 0x0
diff --git a/framework/src/android/net/IConnectivityManager.aidl b/framework/src/android/net/IConnectivityManager.aidl
index c8f588d..db001f9 100644
--- a/framework/src/android/net/IConnectivityManager.aidl
+++ b/framework/src/android/net/IConnectivityManager.aidl
@@ -188,7 +188,7 @@
 
     void startNattKeepaliveWithFd(in Network network, in ParcelFileDescriptor pfd, int resourceId,
             int intervalSeconds, in ISocketKeepaliveCallback cb, String srcAddr,
-            String dstAddr, boolean automaticOnOffKeepalives);
+            String dstAddr, boolean automaticOnOffKeepalives, in Network underpinnedNetwork);
 
     void startTcpKeepalive(in Network network, in ParcelFileDescriptor pfd, int intervalSeconds,
             in ISocketKeepaliveCallback cb);
diff --git a/framework/src/android/net/NattSocketKeepalive.java b/framework/src/android/net/NattSocketKeepalive.java
index 77137f4..a83b5b4 100644
--- a/framework/src/android/net/NattSocketKeepalive.java
+++ b/framework/src/android/net/NattSocketKeepalive.java
@@ -66,10 +66,12 @@
      *                    the supplied {@link Callback} will see a call to
      *                    {@link Callback#onError(int)} with {@link #ERROR_INVALID_INTERVAL}.
      * @param flags Flags to enable/disable available options on this keepalive.
+     * @param underpinnedNetwork The underpinned network of this keepalive.
+     *
      * @hide
      */
     @Override
-    protected void startImpl(int intervalSec, int flags) {
+    protected void startImpl(int intervalSec, int flags, Network underpinnedNetwork) {
         if (0 != (flags & ~FLAG_AUTOMATIC_ON_OFF)) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("Illegal flag value for "
                     + this.getClass().getSimpleName() + " : " + flags);
@@ -79,7 +81,8 @@
             try {
                 mService.startNattKeepaliveWithFd(mNetwork, mPfd, mResourceId,
                         intervalSec, mCallback, mSource.getHostAddress(),
-                        mDestination.getHostAddress(), automaticOnOffKeepalives);
+                        mDestination.getHostAddress(), automaticOnOffKeepalives,
+                        underpinnedNetwork);
             } catch (RemoteException e) {
                 Log.e(TAG, "Error starting socket keepalive: ", e);
                 throw e.rethrowFromSystemServer();
diff --git a/framework/src/android/net/SocketKeepalive.java b/framework/src/android/net/SocketKeepalive.java
index 00104f6..311126e 100644
--- a/framework/src/android/net/SocketKeepalive.java
+++ b/framework/src/android/net/SocketKeepalive.java
@@ -355,7 +355,7 @@
      */
     public final void start(@IntRange(from = MIN_INTERVAL_SEC, to = MAX_INTERVAL_SEC)
             int intervalSec) {
-        startImpl(intervalSec, 0 /* flags */);
+        startImpl(intervalSec, 0 /* flags */, null /* underpinnedNetwork */);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -374,16 +374,18 @@
      *                    the supplied {@link Callback} will see a call to
      *                    {@link Callback#onError(int)} with {@link #ERROR_INVALID_INTERVAL}.
      * @param flags Flags to enable/disable available options on this keepalive.
+     * @param underpinnedNetwork The underpinned network of this keepalive.
      * @hide
      */
     @SystemApi(client = PRIVILEGED_APPS)
     public final void start(@IntRange(from = MIN_INTERVAL_SEC, to = MAX_INTERVAL_SEC)
-            int intervalSec, @StartFlags int flags) {
-        startImpl(intervalSec, flags);
+            int intervalSec, @StartFlags int flags, @NonNull Network underpinnedNetwork) {
+        startImpl(intervalSec, flags, underpinnedNetwork);
     }
 
     /** @hide */
-    protected abstract void startImpl(int intervalSec, @StartFlags int flags);
+    protected abstract void startImpl(int intervalSec, @StartFlags int flags,
+            Network underpinnedNetwork);
 
     /**
      * Requests that keepalive be stopped. The application must wait for {@link Callback#onStopped}
diff --git a/framework/src/android/net/TcpSocketKeepalive.java b/framework/src/android/net/TcpSocketKeepalive.java
index cda5830..b548f6d 100644
--- a/framework/src/android/net/TcpSocketKeepalive.java
+++ b/framework/src/android/net/TcpSocketKeepalive.java
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@
      *   acknowledgement.
      */
     @Override
-    protected void startImpl(int intervalSec, int flags) {
+    protected void startImpl(int intervalSec, int flags, Network underpinnedNetwork) {
         if (0 != flags) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("Illegal flag value for "
                     + this.getClass().getSimpleName() + " : " + flags);
diff --git a/service/src/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java b/service/src/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java
index 1332f32..3dcc448 100755
--- a/service/src/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java
+++ b/service/src/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java
@@ -5589,13 +5589,14 @@
                             mKeepaliveTracker.getKeepaliveForBinder((IBinder) msg.obj);
                     if (null == ki) return; // The callback was unregistered before the alarm fired
 
+                    final Network underpinnedNetwork = ki.getUnderpinnedNetwork();
                     final Network network = ki.getNetwork();
                     boolean networkFound = false;
-                    final ArrayList<NetworkAgentInfo> vpnsRunningOnThisNetwork = new ArrayList<>();
+                    boolean underpinnedNetworkFound = false;
                     for (NetworkAgentInfo n : mNetworkAgentInfos) {
                         if (n.network.equals(network)) networkFound = true;
-                        if (n.isVPN() && n.everConnected() && hasUnderlyingNetwork(n, network)) {
-                            vpnsRunningOnThisNetwork.add(n);
+                        if (n.everConnected() && n.network.equals(underpinnedNetwork)) {
+                            underpinnedNetworkFound = true;
                         }
                     }
 
@@ -5603,12 +5604,11 @@
                     // cleaned up already. There is no point trying to resume keepalives.
                     if (!networkFound) return;
 
-                    if (!vpnsRunningOnThisNetwork.isEmpty()) {
+                    if (underpinnedNetworkFound) {
                         mKeepaliveTracker.handleMonitorAutomaticKeepalive(ki,
-                                // TODO: check all the VPNs running on top of this network
-                                vpnsRunningOnThisNetwork.get(0).network.netId);
+                                underpinnedNetwork.netId);
                     } else {
-                        // If no VPN, then make sure the keepalive is running.
+                        // If no underpinned network, then make sure the keepalive is running.
                         mKeepaliveTracker.handleMaybeResumeKeepalive(ki);
                     }
                     break;
@@ -9868,21 +9868,22 @@
                 getNetworkAgentInfoForNetwork(network), null /* fd */,
                 intervalSeconds, cb, srcAddr, srcPort, dstAddr, NattSocketKeepalive.NATT_PORT,
                 // Keep behavior of the deprecated method as it is. Set automaticOnOffKeepalives to
-                // false because there is no way and no plan to configure automaticOnOffKeepalives
-                // in this deprecated method.
-                false /* automaticOnOffKeepalives */);
+                // false and set the underpinned network to null because there is no way and no
+                // plan to configure automaticOnOffKeepalives or underpinnedNetwork in this
+                // deprecated method.
+                false /* automaticOnOffKeepalives */, null /* underpinnedNetwork */);
     }
 
     @Override
     public void startNattKeepaliveWithFd(Network network, ParcelFileDescriptor pfd, int resourceId,
             int intervalSeconds, ISocketKeepaliveCallback cb, String srcAddr,
-            String dstAddr, boolean automaticOnOffKeepalives) {
+            String dstAddr, boolean automaticOnOffKeepalives, Network underpinnedNetwork) {
         try {
             final FileDescriptor fd = pfd.getFileDescriptor();
             mKeepaliveTracker.startNattKeepalive(
                     getNetworkAgentInfoForNetwork(network), fd, resourceId,
-                    intervalSeconds, cb,
-                    srcAddr, dstAddr, NattSocketKeepalive.NATT_PORT, automaticOnOffKeepalives);
+                    intervalSeconds, cb, srcAddr, dstAddr, NattSocketKeepalive.NATT_PORT,
+                    automaticOnOffKeepalives, underpinnedNetwork);
         } finally {
             // FileDescriptors coming from AIDL calls must be manually closed to prevent leaks.
             // startNattKeepalive calls Os.dup(fd) before returning, so we can close immediately.
diff --git a/service/src/com/android/server/connectivity/AutomaticOnOffKeepaliveTracker.java b/service/src/com/android/server/connectivity/AutomaticOnOffKeepaliveTracker.java
index daabfd8..760a5f3 100644
--- a/service/src/com/android/server/connectivity/AutomaticOnOffKeepaliveTracker.java
+++ b/service/src/com/android/server/connectivity/AutomaticOnOffKeepaliveTracker.java
@@ -196,11 +196,16 @@
         private final PendingIntent mTcpPollingAlarm;
         @AutomaticOnOffState
         private int mAutomaticOnOffState;
+        @Nullable
+        private final Network mUnderpinnedNetwork;
 
         AutomaticOnOffKeepalive(@NonNull final KeepaliveTracker.KeepaliveInfo ki,
-                final boolean autoOnOff, @NonNull Context context) throws InvalidSocketException {
+                final boolean autoOnOff, @NonNull Context context,
+                @Nullable Network underpinnedNetwork)
+                throws InvalidSocketException {
             this.mKi = Objects.requireNonNull(ki);
             mCallback = ki.mCallback;
+            mUnderpinnedNetwork = underpinnedNetwork;
             if (autoOnOff && mDependencies.isFeatureEnabled(AUTOMATIC_ON_OFF_KEEPALIVE_VERSION)) {
                 mAutomaticOnOffState = STATE_ENABLED;
                 if (null == ki.mFd) {
@@ -228,6 +233,11 @@
             return mKi.getNai().network;
         }
 
+        @Nullable
+        public Network getUnderpinnedNetwork() {
+            return mUnderpinnedNetwork;
+        }
+
         public boolean match(Network network, int slot) {
             return mKi.getNai().network().equals(network) && mKi.getSlot() == slot;
         }
@@ -475,13 +485,13 @@
             @NonNull String srcAddrString,
             int srcPort,
             @NonNull String dstAddrString,
-            int dstPort, boolean automaticOnOffKeepalives) {
+            int dstPort, boolean automaticOnOffKeepalives, @Nullable Network underpinnedNetwork) {
         final KeepaliveTracker.KeepaliveInfo ki = mKeepaliveTracker.makeNattKeepaliveInfo(nai, fd,
                 intervalSeconds, cb, srcAddrString, srcPort, dstAddrString, dstPort);
         if (null == ki) return;
         try {
             final AutomaticOnOffKeepalive autoKi = new AutomaticOnOffKeepalive(ki,
-                    automaticOnOffKeepalives, mContext);
+                    automaticOnOffKeepalives, mContext, underpinnedNetwork);
             mConnectivityServiceHandler.obtainMessage(NetworkAgent.CMD_START_SOCKET_KEEPALIVE,
                     // TODO : move ConnectivityService#encodeBool to a static lib.
                     automaticOnOffKeepalives ? 1 : 0, 0, autoKi).sendToTarget();
@@ -504,13 +514,14 @@
             @NonNull String srcAddrString,
             @NonNull String dstAddrString,
             int dstPort,
-            boolean automaticOnOffKeepalives) {
+            boolean automaticOnOffKeepalives,
+            @Nullable Network underpinnedNetwork) {
         final KeepaliveTracker.KeepaliveInfo ki = mKeepaliveTracker.makeNattKeepaliveInfo(nai, fd,
                 resourceId, intervalSeconds, cb, srcAddrString, dstAddrString, dstPort);
         if (null == ki) return;
         try {
             final AutomaticOnOffKeepalive autoKi = new AutomaticOnOffKeepalive(ki,
-                    automaticOnOffKeepalives, mContext);
+                    automaticOnOffKeepalives, mContext, underpinnedNetwork);
             mConnectivityServiceHandler.obtainMessage(NetworkAgent.CMD_START_SOCKET_KEEPALIVE,
                     // TODO : move ConnectivityService#encodeBool to a static lib.
                     automaticOnOffKeepalives ? 1 : 0, 0, autoKi).sendToTarget();
@@ -539,7 +550,8 @@
         if (null == ki) return;
         try {
             final AutomaticOnOffKeepalive autoKi = new AutomaticOnOffKeepalive(ki,
-                    false /* autoOnOff, tcp keepalives are never auto on/off */, mContext);
+                    false /* autoOnOff, tcp keepalives are never auto on/off */,
+                    mContext, null /* underpinnedNetwork, tcp keepalives do not refer to this */);
             mConnectivityServiceHandler.obtainMessage(CMD_START_SOCKET_KEEPALIVE, autoKi)
                     .sendToTarget();
         } catch (InvalidSocketException e) {