diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/DisplayDevice.cpp b/services/surfaceflinger/DisplayDevice.cpp
index 32bd890..3c7cbe6 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/DisplayDevice.cpp
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/DisplayDevice.cpp
@@ -38,7 +38,6 @@
 #include <log/log.h>
 #include <system/window.h>
 
-#include "Display/DisplaySnapshot.h"
 #include "DisplayDevice.h"
 #include "FrontEnd/DisplayInfo.h"
 #include "HdrSdrRatioOverlay.h"
@@ -231,10 +230,18 @@
         return BAD_VALUE;
     }
     mUpcomingActiveMode = info;
-    ATRACE_INT(mActiveModeFPSHwcTrace.c_str(), info.modeOpt->modePtr->getFps().getIntValue());
-    return mHwComposer.setActiveModeWithConstraints(getPhysicalId(),
-                                                    info.modeOpt->modePtr->getHwcId(), constraints,
-                                                    outTimeline);
+    mIsModeSetPending = true;
+
+    const auto& pendingMode = *info.modeOpt->modePtr;
+    ATRACE_INT(mActiveModeFPSHwcTrace.c_str(), pendingMode.getFps().getIntValue());
+
+    return mHwComposer.setActiveModeWithConstraints(getPhysicalId(), pendingMode.getHwcId(),
+                                                    constraints, outTimeline);
+}
+
+void DisplayDevice::finalizeModeChange(DisplayModeId modeId, Fps displayFps, Fps renderFps) {
+    setActiveMode(modeId, displayFps, renderFps);
+    mIsModeSetPending = false;
 }
 
 nsecs_t DisplayDevice::getVsyncPeriodFromHWC() const {
diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/DisplayDevice.h b/services/surfaceflinger/DisplayDevice.h
index e92125a..a3fa701 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/DisplayDevice.h
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/DisplayDevice.h
@@ -218,6 +218,8 @@
         return mUpcomingActiveMode;
     }
 
+    bool isModeSetPending() const REQUIRES(kMainThreadContext) { return mIsModeSetPending; }
+
     scheduler::FrameRateMode getActiveMode() const REQUIRES(kMainThreadContext) {
         return mRefreshRateSelector->getActiveMode();
     }
@@ -229,6 +231,9 @@
                                 hal::VsyncPeriodChangeTimeline* outTimeline)
             REQUIRES(kMainThreadContext);
 
+    void finalizeModeChange(DisplayModeId, Fps displayFps, Fps renderFps)
+            REQUIRES(kMainThreadContext);
+
     scheduler::RefreshRateSelector& refreshRateSelector() const { return *mRefreshRateSelector; }
 
     // Extends the lifetime of the RefreshRateSelector, so it can outlive this DisplayDevice.
@@ -313,7 +318,9 @@
     ActiveModeInfo mDesiredActiveMode GUARDED_BY(mActiveModeLock);
     TracedOrdinal<bool> mDesiredActiveModeChanged GUARDED_BY(mActiveModeLock) =
             {ftl::Concat("DesiredActiveModeChanged-", getId().value).c_str(), false};
+
     ActiveModeInfo mUpcomingActiveMode GUARDED_BY(kMainThreadContext);
+    bool mIsModeSetPending GUARDED_BY(kMainThreadContext) = false;
 };
 
 struct DisplayDeviceState {
diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/Scheduler/Scheduler.cpp b/services/surfaceflinger/Scheduler/Scheduler.cpp
index d6d7725..5a19ec5 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/Scheduler/Scheduler.cpp
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/Scheduler/Scheduler.cpp
@@ -186,7 +186,17 @@
     FrameTargeter& pacesetterTargeter = *pacesetterOpt->get().targeterPtr;
     pacesetterTargeter.beginFrame(beginFrameArgs, *pacesetterOpt->get().schedulePtr);
 
-    if (!compositor.commit(pacesetterTargeter.target())) return;
+    FrameTargets targets;
+    targets.try_emplace(pacesetterId, &pacesetterTargeter.target());
+
+    for (const auto& [id, display] : mDisplays) {
+        if (id == pacesetterId) continue;
+
+        const FrameTargeter& targeter = *display.targeterPtr;
+        targets.try_emplace(id, &targeter.target());
+    }
+
+    if (!compositor.commit(pacesetterId, targets)) return;
 
     // TODO(b/256196556): Choose the frontrunner display.
     FrameTargeters targeters;
diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/Scheduler/include/scheduler/interface/ICompositor.h b/services/surfaceflinger/Scheduler/include/scheduler/interface/ICompositor.h
index 6fe813a..12ee36e 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/Scheduler/include/scheduler/interface/ICompositor.h
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/Scheduler/include/scheduler/interface/ICompositor.h
@@ -29,6 +29,7 @@
 class FrameTarget;
 class FrameTargeter;
 
+using FrameTargets = ui::PhysicalDisplayMap<PhysicalDisplayId, const scheduler::FrameTarget*>;
 using FrameTargeters = ui::PhysicalDisplayMap<PhysicalDisplayId, scheduler::FrameTargeter*>;
 
 } // namespace scheduler
@@ -39,7 +40,7 @@
 
     // Commits transactions for layers and displays. Returns whether any state has been invalidated,
     // i.e. whether a frame should be composited for each display.
-    virtual bool commit(const scheduler::FrameTarget&) = 0;
+    virtual bool commit(PhysicalDisplayId pacesetterId, const scheduler::FrameTargets&) = 0;
 
     // Composites a frame for each display. CompositionEngine performs GPU and/or HAL composition
     // via RenderEngine and the Composer HAL, respectively.
diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/SurfaceFlinger.cpp b/services/surfaceflinger/SurfaceFlinger.cpp
index 9f24dd6..6caf5df 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/SurfaceFlinger.cpp
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/SurfaceFlinger.cpp
@@ -1195,9 +1195,9 @@
 }
 
 void SurfaceFlinger::setDesiredActiveMode(display::DisplayModeRequest&& request, bool force) {
-    ATRACE_CALL();
-
     const auto displayId = request.mode.modePtr->getPhysicalDisplayId();
+    ATRACE_NAME(ftl::Concat(__func__, ' ', displayId.value).c_str());
+
     const auto display = getDisplayDeviceLocked(displayId);
     if (!display) {
         ALOGW("%s: display is no longer valid", __func__);
@@ -1225,17 +1225,24 @@
             // As we called to set period, we will call to onRefreshRateChangeCompleted once
             // VsyncController model is locked.
             mScheduler->modulateVsync(displayId, &VsyncModulator::onRefreshRateChangeInitiated);
-            updatePhaseConfiguration(mode.fps);
+
+            if (displayId == mActiveDisplayId) {
+                updatePhaseConfiguration(mode.fps);
+            }
+
             mScheduler->setModeChangePending(true);
             break;
         case DisplayDevice::DesiredActiveModeAction::InitiateRenderRateSwitch:
             mScheduler->setRenderRate(displayId, mode.fps);
-            updatePhaseConfiguration(mode.fps);
-            mRefreshRateStats->setRefreshRate(mode.fps);
-            if (display->getPhysicalId() == mActiveDisplayId && emitEvent) {
-                mScheduler->onPrimaryDisplayModeChanged(mAppConnectionHandle, mode);
+
+            if (displayId == mActiveDisplayId) {
+                updatePhaseConfiguration(mode.fps);
+                mRefreshRateStats->setRefreshRate(mode.fps);
             }
 
+            if (emitEvent) {
+                dispatchDisplayModeChangeEvent(displayId, mode);
+            }
             break;
         case DisplayDevice::DesiredActiveModeAction::None:
             break;
@@ -1291,24 +1298,20 @@
     return future.get();
 }
 
-void SurfaceFlinger::updateInternalStateWithChangedMode() {
-    ATRACE_CALL();
+void SurfaceFlinger::finalizeDisplayModeChange(DisplayDevice& display) {
+    const auto displayId = display.getPhysicalId();
+    ATRACE_NAME(ftl::Concat(__func__, ' ', displayId.value).c_str());
 
-    const auto display = getDefaultDisplayDeviceLocked();
-    if (!display) {
-        return;
-    }
-
-    const auto upcomingModeInfo = display->getUpcomingActiveMode();
+    const auto upcomingModeInfo = display.getUpcomingActiveMode();
     if (!upcomingModeInfo.modeOpt) {
         // There is no pending mode change. This can happen if the active
         // display changed and the mode change happened on a different display.
         return;
     }
 
-    if (display->getActiveMode().modePtr->getResolution() !=
+    if (display.getActiveMode().modePtr->getResolution() !=
         upcomingModeInfo.modeOpt->modePtr->getResolution()) {
-        auto& state = mCurrentState.displays.editValueFor(display->getDisplayToken());
+        auto& state = mCurrentState.displays.editValueFor(display.getDisplayToken());
         // We need to generate new sequenceId in order to recreate the display (and this
         // way the framebuffer).
         state.sequenceId = DisplayDeviceState{}.sequenceId;
@@ -1319,27 +1322,24 @@
         return;
     }
 
-    mPhysicalDisplays.get(display->getPhysicalId())
-            .transform(&PhysicalDisplay::snapshotRef)
-            .transform(ftl::unit_fn([&](const display::DisplaySnapshot& snapshot) {
-                FTL_FAKE_GUARD(kMainThreadContext,
-                               display->setActiveMode(upcomingModeInfo.modeOpt->modePtr->getId(),
-                                                      upcomingModeInfo.modeOpt->modePtr->getFps(),
-                                                      upcomingModeInfo.modeOpt->fps));
-            }));
+    const auto& activeMode = *upcomingModeInfo.modeOpt;
+    display.finalizeModeChange(activeMode.modePtr->getId(), activeMode.modePtr->getFps(),
+                               activeMode.fps);
 
-    const Fps refreshRate = upcomingModeInfo.modeOpt->fps;
-    mRefreshRateStats->setRefreshRate(refreshRate);
-    updatePhaseConfiguration(refreshRate);
+    if (displayId == mActiveDisplayId) {
+        mRefreshRateStats->setRefreshRate(activeMode.fps);
+        updatePhaseConfiguration(activeMode.fps);
+    }
 
     if (upcomingModeInfo.event != scheduler::DisplayModeEvent::None) {
-        mScheduler->onPrimaryDisplayModeChanged(mAppConnectionHandle, *upcomingModeInfo.modeOpt);
+        dispatchDisplayModeChangeEvent(displayId, activeMode);
     }
 }
 
 void SurfaceFlinger::clearDesiredActiveModeState(const sp<DisplayDevice>& display) {
     display->clearDesiredActiveModeState();
     if (display->getPhysicalId() == mActiveDisplayId) {
+        // TODO(b/255635711): Check for pending mode changes on other displays.
         mScheduler->setModeChangePending(false);
     }
 }
@@ -1353,21 +1353,18 @@
     clearDesiredActiveModeState(display);
     mScheduler->resyncToHardwareVsync(displayId, true /* allowToEnable */, displayFps);
     mScheduler->setRenderRate(displayId, renderFps);
-    updatePhaseConfiguration(renderFps);
+
+    if (displayId == mActiveDisplayId) {
+        updatePhaseConfiguration(renderFps);
+    }
 }
 
-void SurfaceFlinger::setActiveModeInHwcIfNeeded() {
+void SurfaceFlinger::initiateDisplayModeChanges() {
     ATRACE_CALL();
 
     std::optional<PhysicalDisplayId> displayToUpdateImmediately;
 
     for (const auto& [id, physical] : mPhysicalDisplays) {
-        const auto& snapshot = physical.snapshot();
-
-        if (snapshot.connectionType() != ui::DisplayConnectionType::Internal) {
-            continue;
-        }
-
         const auto display = getDisplayDeviceLocked(id);
         if (!display) continue;
 
@@ -1378,14 +1375,14 @@
             continue;
         }
 
-        if (id != mActiveDisplayId) {
-            // Display is no longer the active display, so abort the mode change.
+        if (!display->isPoweredOn()) {
+            // Display is no longer powered on, so abort the mode change.
             clearDesiredActiveModeState(display);
             continue;
         }
 
         const auto desiredModeId = desiredActiveMode->modeOpt->modePtr->getId();
-        const auto displayModePtrOpt = snapshot.displayModes().get(desiredModeId);
+        const auto displayModePtrOpt = physical.snapshot().displayModes().get(desiredModeId);
 
         if (!displayModePtrOpt) {
             ALOGW("Desired display mode is no longer supported. Mode ID = %d",
@@ -1435,19 +1432,18 @@
 
         if (outTimeline.refreshRequired) {
             scheduleComposite(FrameHint::kNone);
-            mSetActiveModePending = true;
         } else {
-            // Updating the internal state should be done outside the loop,
-            // because it can recreate a DisplayDevice and modify mDisplays
-            // which will invalidate the iterator.
+            // TODO(b/255635711): Remove `displayToUpdateImmediately` to `finalizeDisplayModeChange`
+            // for all displays. This was only needed when the loop iterated over `mDisplays` rather
+            // than `mPhysicalDisplays`.
             displayToUpdateImmediately = display->getPhysicalId();
         }
     }
 
     if (displayToUpdateImmediately) {
-        updateInternalStateWithChangedMode();
-
         const auto display = getDisplayDeviceLocked(*displayToUpdateImmediately);
+        finalizeDisplayModeChange(*display);
+
         const auto desiredActiveMode = display->getDesiredActiveMode();
         if (desiredActiveMode && display->getActiveMode() == desiredActiveMode->modeOpt) {
             desiredActiveModeChangeDone(display);
@@ -2398,7 +2394,10 @@
     return mustComposite;
 }
 
-bool SurfaceFlinger::commit(const scheduler::FrameTarget& pacesetterFrameTarget) {
+bool SurfaceFlinger::commit(PhysicalDisplayId pacesetterId,
+                            const scheduler::FrameTargets& frameTargets) {
+    const scheduler::FrameTarget& pacesetterFrameTarget = *frameTargets.get(pacesetterId)->get();
+
     const VsyncId vsyncId = pacesetterFrameTarget.vsyncId();
     ATRACE_NAME(ftl::Concat(__func__, ' ', ftl::to_underlying(vsyncId)).c_str());
 
@@ -2411,20 +2410,35 @@
         mTracingEnabledChanged = false;
     }
 
-    // If we are in the middle of a mode change and the fence hasn't
-    // fired yet just wait for the next commit.
-    if (mSetActiveModePending) {
-        if (pacesetterFrameTarget.isFramePending()) {
-            mScheduler->scheduleFrame();
-            return false;
-        }
+    // If a mode set is pending and the fence hasn't fired yet, wait for the next commit.
+    if (std::any_of(frameTargets.begin(), frameTargets.end(),
+                    [this](const auto& pair) FTL_FAKE_GUARD(mStateLock)
+                            FTL_FAKE_GUARD(kMainThreadContext) {
+                                if (!pair.second->isFramePending()) return false;
 
-        // We received the present fence from the HWC, so we assume it successfully updated
-        // the mode, hence we update SF.
-        mSetActiveModePending = false;
-        {
-            Mutex::Autolock lock(mStateLock);
-            updateInternalStateWithChangedMode();
+                                if (const auto display = getDisplayDeviceLocked(pair.first)) {
+                                    return display->isModeSetPending();
+                                }
+
+                                return false;
+                            })) {
+        mScheduler->scheduleFrame();
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    {
+        Mutex::Autolock lock(mStateLock);
+
+        for (const auto [id, target] : frameTargets) {
+            // TODO(b/241285876): This is `nullptr` when the DisplayDevice is about to be removed in
+            // this commit, since the PhysicalDisplay has already been removed. Rather than checking
+            // for `nullptr` below, change Scheduler::onFrameSignal to filter out the FrameTarget of
+            // the removed display.
+            const auto display = getDisplayDeviceLocked(id);
+
+            if (display && display->isModeSetPending()) {
+                finalizeDisplayModeChange(*display);
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -2515,7 +2529,7 @@
                                                         ? &mLayerHierarchyBuilder.getHierarchy()
                                                         : nullptr,
                                                 updateAttachedChoreographer);
-        setActiveModeInHwcIfNeeded();
+        initiateDisplayModeChanges();
     }
 
     updateCursorAsync();
@@ -3322,6 +3336,16 @@
     mScheduler->onHotplugReceived(mSfConnectionHandle, displayId, connected);
 }
 
+void SurfaceFlinger::dispatchDisplayModeChangeEvent(PhysicalDisplayId displayId,
+                                                    const scheduler::FrameRateMode& mode) {
+    // TODO(b/255635821): Merge code paths and move to Scheduler.
+    const auto onDisplayModeChanged = displayId == mActiveDisplayId
+            ? &scheduler::Scheduler::onPrimaryDisplayModeChanged
+            : &scheduler::Scheduler::onNonPrimaryDisplayModeChanged;
+
+    ((*mScheduler).*onDisplayModeChanged)(mAppConnectionHandle, mode);
+}
+
 sp<DisplayDevice> SurfaceFlinger::setupNewDisplayDeviceInternal(
         const wp<IBinder>& displayToken,
         std::shared_ptr<compositionengine::Display> compositionDisplay,
@@ -3420,14 +3444,8 @@
                                                     RenderIntent::COLORIMETRIC});
 
     if (const auto& physical = state.physical) {
-        mPhysicalDisplays.get(physical->id)
-                .transform(&PhysicalDisplay::snapshotRef)
-                .transform(ftl::unit_fn([&](const display::DisplaySnapshot& snapshot) {
-                    FTL_FAKE_GUARD(kMainThreadContext,
-                                   display->setActiveMode(physical->activeMode->getId(),
-                                                          physical->activeMode->getFps(),
-                                                          physical->activeMode->getFps()));
-                }));
+        const auto& mode = *physical->activeMode;
+        display->setActiveMode(mode.getId(), mode.getFps(), mode.getFps());
     }
 
     display->setLayerFilter(makeLayerFilterForDisplay(display->getId(), state.layerStack));
@@ -3946,12 +3964,8 @@
 
         if (!display) continue;
 
-        const bool isInternalDisplay = mPhysicalDisplays.get(displayId)
-                                               .transform(&PhysicalDisplay::isInternal)
-                                               .value_or(false);
-
-        if (isInternalDisplay && displayId != mActiveDisplayId) {
-            ALOGV("%s(%s): Inactive display", __func__, to_string(displayId).c_str());
+        if (!display->isPoweredOn()) {
+            ALOGV("%s(%s): Display is powered off", __func__, to_string(displayId).c_str());
             continue;
         }
 
@@ -3959,7 +3973,7 @@
             setDesiredActiveMode(std::move(request));
         } else {
             ALOGV("%s: Mode %d is disallowed for display %s", __func__, modePtr->getId().value(),
-                  to_string(display->getId()).c_str());
+                  to_string(displayId).c_str());
         }
     }
 }
@@ -7922,6 +7936,7 @@
         const sp<DisplayDevice>& display,
         const scheduler::RefreshRateSelector::PolicyVariant& policy) {
     const auto displayId = display->getPhysicalId();
+    ATRACE_NAME(ftl::Concat(__func__, ' ', displayId.value).c_str());
 
     Mutex::Autolock lock(mStateLock);
 
@@ -7942,13 +7957,11 @@
             break;
     }
 
-    const bool isInternalDisplay = mPhysicalDisplays.get(displayId)
-                                           .transform(&PhysicalDisplay::isInternal)
-                                           .value_or(false);
-
-    if (isInternalDisplay && displayId != mActiveDisplayId) {
-        // The policy will be be applied when the display becomes active.
-        ALOGV("%s(%s): Inactive display", __func__, to_string(displayId).c_str());
+    // TODO(b/255635711): Apply the policy once the display is powered on, which is currently only
+    // done for the internal display that becomes active on fold/unfold. For now, assume that DM
+    // always powers on the secondary (internal or external) display before setting its policy.
+    if (!display->isPoweredOn()) {
+        ALOGV("%s(%s): Display is powered off", __func__, to_string(displayId).c_str());
         return NO_ERROR;
     }
 
@@ -8311,7 +8324,9 @@
 
     resetPhaseConfiguration(activeDisplay.getActiveMode().fps);
 
+    // TODO(b/255635711): Check for pending mode changes on other displays.
     mScheduler->setModeChangePending(false);
+
     mScheduler->setPacesetterDisplay(mActiveDisplayId);
 
     onActiveDisplaySizeChanged(activeDisplay);
diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/SurfaceFlinger.h b/services/surfaceflinger/SurfaceFlinger.h
index b07910d..f61f9a2 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/SurfaceFlinger.h
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/SurfaceFlinger.h
@@ -638,7 +638,8 @@
 
     // ICompositor overrides:
     void configure() override REQUIRES(kMainThreadContext);
-    bool commit(const scheduler::FrameTarget&) override REQUIRES(kMainThreadContext);
+    bool commit(PhysicalDisplayId pacesetterId, const scheduler::FrameTargets&) override
+            REQUIRES(kMainThreadContext);
     CompositeResultsPerDisplay composite(PhysicalDisplayId pacesetterId,
                                          const scheduler::FrameTargeters&) override
             REQUIRES(kMainThreadContext);
@@ -684,11 +685,10 @@
             REQUIRES(mStateLock);
 
     status_t setActiveModeFromBackdoor(const sp<display::DisplayToken>&, DisplayModeId);
-    // Sets the active mode and a new refresh rate in SF.
-    void updateInternalStateWithChangedMode() REQUIRES(mStateLock, kMainThreadContext);
-    // Calls to setActiveMode on the main thread if there is a pending mode change
-    // that needs to be applied.
-    void setActiveModeInHwcIfNeeded() REQUIRES(mStateLock, kMainThreadContext);
+
+    void initiateDisplayModeChanges() REQUIRES(mStateLock, kMainThreadContext);
+    void finalizeDisplayModeChange(DisplayDevice&) REQUIRES(mStateLock, kMainThreadContext);
+
     void clearDesiredActiveModeState(const sp<DisplayDevice>&) REQUIRES(mStateLock);
     // Called when active mode is no longer is progress
     void desiredActiveModeChangeDone(const sp<DisplayDevice>&) REQUIRES(mStateLock);
@@ -1011,7 +1011,9 @@
                                const DisplayDeviceState& drawingState)
             REQUIRES(mStateLock, kMainThreadContext);
 
-    void dispatchDisplayHotplugEvent(PhysicalDisplayId displayId, bool connected);
+    void dispatchDisplayHotplugEvent(PhysicalDisplayId, bool connected);
+    void dispatchDisplayModeChangeEvent(PhysicalDisplayId, const scheduler::FrameRateMode&)
+            REQUIRES(mStateLock);
 
     /*
      * VSYNC
@@ -1330,9 +1332,6 @@
     std::unique_ptr<scheduler::RefreshRateStats> mRefreshRateStats;
     scheduler::PresentLatencyTracker mPresentLatencyTracker GUARDED_BY(kMainThreadContext);
 
-    // below flags are set by main thread only
-    bool mSetActiveModePending = false;
-
     bool mLumaSampling = true;
     sp<RegionSamplingThread> mRegionSamplingThread;
     sp<FpsReporter> mFpsReporter;
diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/fuzzer/surfaceflinger_fuzzers_utils.h b/services/surfaceflinger/fuzzer/surfaceflinger_fuzzers_utils.h
index 28ac664..ca1af6e 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/fuzzer/surfaceflinger_fuzzers_utils.h
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/fuzzer/surfaceflinger_fuzzers_utils.h
@@ -286,7 +286,7 @@
 private:
     // ICompositor overrides:
     void configure() override {}
-    bool commit(const scheduler::FrameTarget&) override { return false; }
+    bool commit(PhysicalDisplayId, const scheduler::FrameTargets&) override { return false; }
     CompositeResultsPerDisplay composite(PhysicalDisplayId,
                                          const scheduler::FrameTargeters&) override {
         return {};
diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/MessageQueueTest.cpp b/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/MessageQueueTest.cpp
index 1dcf222..9aa089f 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/MessageQueueTest.cpp
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/MessageQueueTest.cpp
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@
 
 struct NoOpCompositor final : ICompositor {
     void configure() override {}
-    bool commit(const scheduler::FrameTarget&) override { return false; }
+    bool commit(PhysicalDisplayId, const scheduler::FrameTargets&) override { return false; }
     CompositeResultsPerDisplay composite(PhysicalDisplayId,
                                          const scheduler::FrameTargeters&) override {
         return {};
diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/SurfaceFlinger_DisplayModeSwitching.cpp b/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/SurfaceFlinger_DisplayModeSwitching.cpp
index 703bdda..24eb318 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/SurfaceFlinger_DisplayModeSwitching.cpp
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/SurfaceFlinger_DisplayModeSwitching.cpp
@@ -67,10 +67,36 @@
                 .WillByDefault(Return(true));
     }
 
+    static constexpr HWDisplayId kInnerDisplayHwcId = PrimaryDisplayVariant::HWC_DISPLAY_ID;
+    static constexpr HWDisplayId kOuterDisplayHwcId = kInnerDisplayHwcId + 1;
+
+    auto injectOuterDisplay() {
+        constexpr PhysicalDisplayId kOuterDisplayId = PhysicalDisplayId::fromPort(254u);
+
+        constexpr bool kIsPrimary = false;
+        TestableSurfaceFlinger::FakeHwcDisplayInjector(kOuterDisplayId, hal::DisplayType::PHYSICAL,
+                                                       kIsPrimary)
+                .setHwcDisplayId(kOuterDisplayHwcId)
+                .setPowerMode(hal::PowerMode::OFF)
+                .inject(&mFlinger, mComposer);
+
+        mOuterDisplay = mFakeDisplayInjector.injectInternalDisplay(
+                [&](FakeDisplayDeviceInjector& injector) {
+                    injector.setPowerMode(hal::PowerMode::OFF);
+                    injector.setDisplayModes(mock::cloneForDisplay(kOuterDisplayId, kModes),
+                                             kModeId120);
+                },
+                {.displayId = kOuterDisplayId,
+                 .hwcDisplayId = kOuterDisplayHwcId,
+                 .isPrimary = kIsPrimary});
+
+        return std::forward_as_tuple(mDisplay, mOuterDisplay);
+    }
+
 protected:
     void setupScheduler(std::shared_ptr<scheduler::RefreshRateSelector>);
 
-    sp<DisplayDevice> mDisplay;
+    sp<DisplayDevice> mDisplay, mOuterDisplay;
     mock::EventThread* mAppEventThread;
 
     static constexpr DisplayModeId kModeId60{0};
@@ -328,32 +354,16 @@
     return true;
 }
 
-TEST_F(DisplayModeSwitchingTest, multiDisplay) {
-    constexpr HWDisplayId kInnerDisplayHwcId = PrimaryDisplayVariant::HWC_DISPLAY_ID;
-    constexpr HWDisplayId kOuterDisplayHwcId = kInnerDisplayHwcId + 1;
+TEST_F(DisplayModeSwitchingTest, innerXorOuterDisplay) {
+    const auto [innerDisplay, outerDisplay] = injectOuterDisplay();
 
-    constexpr PhysicalDisplayId kOuterDisplayId = PhysicalDisplayId::fromPort(254u);
-
-    constexpr bool kIsPrimary = false;
-    TestableSurfaceFlinger::FakeHwcDisplayInjector(kOuterDisplayId, hal::DisplayType::PHYSICAL,
-                                                   kIsPrimary)
-            .setHwcDisplayId(kOuterDisplayHwcId)
-            .inject(&mFlinger, mComposer);
-
-    const auto outerDisplay = mFakeDisplayInjector.injectInternalDisplay(
-            [&](FakeDisplayDeviceInjector& injector) {
-                injector.setDisplayModes(mock::cloneForDisplay(kOuterDisplayId, kModes),
-                                         kModeId120);
-            },
-            {.displayId = kOuterDisplayId,
-             .hwcDisplayId = kOuterDisplayHwcId,
-             .isPrimary = kIsPrimary});
-
-    const auto& innerDisplay = mDisplay;
+    EXPECT_TRUE(innerDisplay->isPoweredOn());
+    EXPECT_FALSE(outerDisplay->isPoweredOn());
 
     EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId60));
     EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId120));
 
+    // Only the inner display is powered on.
     mFlinger.onActiveDisplayChanged(nullptr, *innerDisplay);
 
     EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId60));
@@ -388,6 +398,10 @@
     EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId90));
     EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId120));
 
+    innerDisplay->setPowerMode(hal::PowerMode::OFF);
+    outerDisplay->setPowerMode(hal::PowerMode::ON);
+
+    // Only the outer display is powered on.
     mFlinger.onActiveDisplayChanged(innerDisplay.get(), *outerDisplay);
 
     EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId90));
@@ -409,5 +423,107 @@
     EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId60));
 }
 
+TEST_F(DisplayModeSwitchingTest, innerAndOuterDisplay) {
+    const auto [innerDisplay, outerDisplay] = injectOuterDisplay();
+
+    EXPECT_TRUE(innerDisplay->isPoweredOn());
+    EXPECT_FALSE(outerDisplay->isPoweredOn());
+
+    EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId60));
+    EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId120));
+
+    outerDisplay->setPowerMode(hal::PowerMode::ON);
+
+    // Both displays are powered on.
+    mFlinger.onActiveDisplayChanged(nullptr, *innerDisplay);
+
+    EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId60));
+    EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId120));
+
+    EXPECT_EQ(NO_ERROR,
+              mFlinger.setDesiredDisplayModeSpecs(innerDisplay->getDisplayToken().promote(),
+                                                  mock::createDisplayModeSpecs(kModeId90.value(),
+                                                                               false, 0.f, 120.f)));
+
+    EXPECT_EQ(NO_ERROR,
+              mFlinger.setDesiredDisplayModeSpecs(outerDisplay->getDisplayToken().promote(),
+                                                  mock::createDisplayModeSpecs(kModeId60.value(),
+                                                                               false, 0.f, 120.f)));
+
+    EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSwitchingTo(&mFlinger, kModeId90));
+    EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSwitchingTo(&mFlinger, kModeId60));
+
+    const VsyncPeriodChangeTimeline timeline{.refreshRequired = true};
+    EXPECT_CALL(*mComposer,
+                setActiveConfigWithConstraints(kInnerDisplayHwcId,
+                                               hal::HWConfigId(kModeId90.value()), _, _))
+            .WillOnce(DoAll(SetArgPointee<3>(timeline), Return(Error::NONE)));
+
+    EXPECT_CALL(*mComposer,
+                setActiveConfigWithConstraints(kOuterDisplayHwcId,
+                                               hal::HWConfigId(kModeId60.value()), _, _))
+            .WillOnce(DoAll(SetArgPointee<3>(timeline), Return(Error::NONE)));
+
+    mFlinger.commit();
+
+    EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSwitchingTo(&mFlinger, kModeId90));
+    EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSwitchingTo(&mFlinger, kModeId60));
+
+    mFlinger.commit();
+
+    EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId90));
+    EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId60));
+}
+
+TEST_F(DisplayModeSwitchingTest, powerOffDuringModeSet) {
+    const auto [innerDisplay, outerDisplay] = injectOuterDisplay();
+
+    EXPECT_TRUE(innerDisplay->isPoweredOn());
+    EXPECT_FALSE(outerDisplay->isPoweredOn());
+
+    EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId60));
+    EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId120));
+
+    outerDisplay->setPowerMode(hal::PowerMode::ON);
+
+    // Both displays are powered on.
+    mFlinger.onActiveDisplayChanged(nullptr, *innerDisplay);
+
+    EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId60));
+    EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId120));
+
+    EXPECT_EQ(NO_ERROR,
+              mFlinger.setDesiredDisplayModeSpecs(innerDisplay->getDisplayToken().promote(),
+                                                  mock::createDisplayModeSpecs(kModeId90.value(),
+                                                                               false, 0.f, 120.f)));
+
+    EXPECT_EQ(NO_ERROR,
+              mFlinger.setDesiredDisplayModeSpecs(outerDisplay->getDisplayToken().promote(),
+                                                  mock::createDisplayModeSpecs(kModeId60.value(),
+                                                                               false, 0.f, 120.f)));
+
+    EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSwitchingTo(&mFlinger, kModeId90));
+    EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSwitchingTo(&mFlinger, kModeId60));
+
+    // Power off the outer display before the mode has been set.
+    outerDisplay->setPowerMode(hal::PowerMode::OFF);
+
+    const VsyncPeriodChangeTimeline timeline{.refreshRequired = true};
+    EXPECT_CALL(*mComposer,
+                setActiveConfigWithConstraints(kInnerDisplayHwcId,
+                                               hal::HWConfigId(kModeId90.value()), _, _))
+            .WillOnce(DoAll(SetArgPointee<3>(timeline), Return(Error::NONE)));
+
+    mFlinger.commit();
+
+    EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSwitchingTo(&mFlinger, kModeId90));
+    EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId120));
+
+    mFlinger.commit();
+
+    EXPECT_THAT(innerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId90));
+    EXPECT_THAT(outerDisplay, ModeSettledTo(kModeId120));
+}
+
 } // namespace
 } // namespace android
diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/TestableScheduler.h b/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/TestableScheduler.h
index f3c9d0d..151b178 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/TestableScheduler.h
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/TestableScheduler.h
@@ -180,7 +180,7 @@
 private:
     // ICompositor overrides:
     void configure() override {}
-    bool commit(const scheduler::FrameTarget&) override { return false; }
+    bool commit(PhysicalDisplayId, const scheduler::FrameTargets&) override { return false; }
     CompositeResultsPerDisplay composite(PhysicalDisplayId,
                                          const scheduler::FrameTargeters&) override {
         return {};
diff --git a/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/TestableSurfaceFlinger.h b/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/TestableSurfaceFlinger.h
index 9b3a893..e59d44d 100644
--- a/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/TestableSurfaceFlinger.h
+++ b/services/surfaceflinger/tests/unittests/TestableSurfaceFlinger.h
@@ -386,10 +386,19 @@
                                   .sfWorkDuration = 10ms},
                                  *mScheduler->getVsyncSchedule());
 
-        mFlinger->commit(frameTargeter.target());
+        scheduler::FrameTargets targets;
+        scheduler::FrameTargeters targeters;
+
+        for (const auto& [id, display] :
+             FTL_FAKE_GUARD(mFlinger->mStateLock, mFlinger->mPhysicalDisplays)) {
+            targets.try_emplace(id, &frameTargeter.target());
+            targeters.try_emplace(id, &frameTargeter);
+        }
+
+        mFlinger->commit(displayId, targets);
 
         if (composite) {
-            mFlinger->composite(displayId, ftl::init::map(displayId, &frameTargeter));
+            mFlinger->composite(displayId, targeters);
         }
     }