diff --git a/cmds/installd/InstalldNativeService.cpp b/cmds/installd/InstalldNativeService.cpp
index 7eb5cb4..3cdba06 100644
--- a/cmds/installd/InstalldNativeService.cpp
+++ b/cmds/installd/InstalldNativeService.cpp
@@ -3631,5 +3631,23 @@
     return ok();
 }
 
+binder::Status InstalldNativeService::getOdexVisibility(
+        const std::string& packageName, const std::string& apkPath,
+        const std::string& instructionSet, const std::optional<std::string>& outputPath,
+        int32_t* _aidl_return) {
+    ENFORCE_UID(AID_SYSTEM);
+    CHECK_ARGUMENT_PACKAGE_NAME(packageName);
+    CHECK_ARGUMENT_PATH(apkPath);
+    CHECK_ARGUMENT_PATH(outputPath);
+    LOCK_PACKAGE();
+
+    const char* apk_path = apkPath.c_str();
+    const char* instruction_set = instructionSet.c_str();
+    const char* oat_dir = outputPath ? outputPath->c_str() : nullptr;
+
+    *_aidl_return = get_odex_visibility(apk_path, instruction_set, oat_dir);
+    return *_aidl_return == -1 ? error() : ok();
+}
+
 }  // namespace installd
 }  // namespace android
diff --git a/cmds/installd/InstalldNativeService.h b/cmds/installd/InstalldNativeService.h
index 1f0fc9c..7d19505 100644
--- a/cmds/installd/InstalldNativeService.h
+++ b/cmds/installd/InstalldNativeService.h
@@ -183,6 +183,11 @@
     binder::Status cleanupInvalidPackageDirs(const std::optional<std::string>& uuid, int32_t userId,
                                              int32_t flags);
 
+    binder::Status getOdexVisibility(const std::string& packageName, const std::string& apkPath,
+                                     const std::string& instructionSet,
+                                     const std::optional<std::string>& outputPath,
+                                     int32_t* _aidl_return);
+
 private:
     std::recursive_mutex mLock;
     std::unordered_map<userid_t, std::weak_ptr<std::shared_mutex>> mUserIdLock;
diff --git a/cmds/installd/binder/android/os/IInstalld.aidl b/cmds/installd/binder/android/os/IInstalld.aidl
index e08e9b6..2b5a35e 100644
--- a/cmds/installd/binder/android/os/IInstalld.aidl
+++ b/cmds/installd/binder/android/os/IInstalld.aidl
@@ -130,6 +130,9 @@
 
     void cleanupInvalidPackageDirs(@nullable @utf8InCpp String uuid, int userId, int flags);
 
+    int getOdexVisibility(@utf8InCpp String packageName, @utf8InCpp String apkPath,
+            @utf8InCpp String instructionSet, @nullable @utf8InCpp String outputPath);
+
     const int FLAG_STORAGE_DE = 0x1;
     const int FLAG_STORAGE_CE = 0x2;
     const int FLAG_STORAGE_EXTERNAL = 0x4;
diff --git a/cmds/installd/dexopt.cpp b/cmds/installd/dexopt.cpp
index 9647865..894c7d3 100644
--- a/cmds/installd/dexopt.cpp
+++ b/cmds/installd/dexopt.cpp
@@ -2773,13 +2773,23 @@
                          const std::string& profile_name,
                          const std::string& code_path,
                          const std::optional<std::string>& dex_metadata) {
-    // Prepare the current profile.
-    std::string cur_profile  = create_current_profile_path(user_id, package_name, profile_name,
-            /*is_secondary_dex*/ false);
-    uid_t uid = multiuser_get_uid(user_id, app_id);
-    if (fs_prepare_file_strict(cur_profile.c_str(), 0600, uid, uid) != 0) {
-        PLOG(ERROR) << "Failed to prepare " << cur_profile;
-        return false;
+    if (user_id != USER_NULL) {
+        if (user_id < 0) {
+            LOG(ERROR) << "Unexpected user ID " << user_id;
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Prepare the current profile.
+        std::string cur_profile = create_current_profile_path(user_id, package_name, profile_name,
+                                                              /*is_secondary_dex*/ false);
+        uid_t uid = multiuser_get_uid(user_id, app_id);
+        if (fs_prepare_file_strict(cur_profile.c_str(), 0600, uid, uid) != 0) {
+            PLOG(ERROR) << "Failed to prepare " << cur_profile;
+            return false;
+        }
+    } else {
+        // Prepare the reference profile as the system user.
+        user_id = USER_SYSTEM;
     }
 
     // Check if we need to install the profile from the dex metadata.
@@ -2788,8 +2798,9 @@
     }
 
     // We have a dex metdata. Merge the profile into the reference profile.
-    unique_fd ref_profile_fd = open_reference_profile(uid, package_name, profile_name,
-            /*read_write*/ true, /*is_secondary_dex*/ false);
+    unique_fd ref_profile_fd =
+            open_reference_profile(multiuser_get_uid(user_id, app_id), package_name, profile_name,
+                                   /*read_write*/ true, /*is_secondary_dex*/ false);
     unique_fd dex_metadata_fd(TEMP_FAILURE_RETRY(
             open(dex_metadata->c_str(), O_RDONLY | O_NOFOLLOW)));
     unique_fd apk_fd(TEMP_FAILURE_RETRY(open(code_path.c_str(), O_RDONLY | O_NOFOLLOW)));
@@ -2823,5 +2834,22 @@
     return true;
 }
 
+int get_odex_visibility(const char* apk_path, const char* instruction_set, const char* oat_dir) {
+    char oat_path[PKG_PATH_MAX];
+    if (!create_oat_out_path(apk_path, instruction_set, oat_dir, /*is_secondary_dex=*/false,
+                             oat_path)) {
+        return -1;
+    }
+    struct stat st;
+    if (stat(oat_path, &st) == -1) {
+        if (errno == ENOENT) {
+            return ODEX_NOT_FOUND;
+        }
+        PLOG(ERROR) << "Could not stat " << oat_path;
+        return -1;
+    }
+    return (st.st_mode & S_IROTH) ? ODEX_IS_PUBLIC : ODEX_IS_PRIVATE;
+}
+
 }  // namespace installd
 }  // namespace android
diff --git a/cmds/installd/dexopt.h b/cmds/installd/dexopt.h
index 12579b0..f7af929 100644
--- a/cmds/installd/dexopt.h
+++ b/cmds/installd/dexopt.h
@@ -98,10 +98,9 @@
                          const std::string& pkgname,
                          const std::string& profile_name);
 
-// Prepare the app profile for the given code path:
-//  - create the current profile using profile_name
-//  - merge the profile from the dex metadata file (if present) into
-//    the reference profile.
+// Prepares the app profile for the package at the given path:
+// - Creates the current profile for the given user ID, unless the user ID is `USER_NULL`.
+// - Merges the profile from the dex metadata file (if present) into the reference profile.
 bool prepare_app_profile(const std::string& package_name,
                          userid_t user_id,
                          appid_t app_id,
@@ -153,6 +152,12 @@
         bool is_release,
         bool is_debuggable_build);
 
+// Returns `ODEX_NOT_FOUND` if the optimized artifacts are not found, or `ODEX_IS_PUBLIC` if the
+// optimized artifacts are accessible by all apps, or `ODEX_IS_PRIVATE` if the optimized artifacts
+// are only accessible by this app, or -1 if failed to get the visibility of the optimized
+// artifacts.
+int get_odex_visibility(const char* apk_path, const char* instruction_set, const char* oat_dir);
+
 }  // namespace installd
 }  // namespace android
 
diff --git a/cmds/installd/installd_constants.h b/cmds/installd/installd_constants.h
index 00d8441..3623f9b 100644
--- a/cmds/installd/installd_constants.h
+++ b/cmds/installd/installd_constants.h
@@ -18,6 +18,8 @@
 #ifndef INSTALLD_CONSTANTS_H_
 #define INSTALLD_CONSTANTS_H_
 
+#include "cutils/multiuser.h"
+
 namespace android {
 namespace installd {
 
@@ -83,6 +85,15 @@
 constexpr int PROFILES_ANALYSIS_DONT_OPTIMIZE_SMALL_DELTA    = 2;
 constexpr int PROFILES_ANALYSIS_DONT_OPTIMIZE_EMPTY_PROFILES = 3;
 
+// NOTE: keep in sync with Installer.java
+constexpr int ODEX_NOT_FOUND = 0;
+constexpr int ODEX_IS_PUBLIC = 1;
+constexpr int ODEX_IS_PRIVATE = 2;
+
+// NOTE: keep in sync with UserHandle.java
+constexpr userid_t USER_NULL = -10000;
+constexpr userid_t USER_SYSTEM = 0;
+
 #define ARRAY_SIZE(a) (sizeof(a) / sizeof(*(a)))
 
 }  // namespace installd
diff --git a/cmds/installd/tests/installd_dexopt_test.cpp b/cmds/installd/tests/installd_dexopt_test.cpp
index f21a304..4eb30e2 100644
--- a/cmds/installd/tests/installd_dexopt_test.cpp
+++ b/cmds/installd/tests/installd_dexopt_test.cpp
@@ -650,6 +650,36 @@
 
         ASSERT_EQ(expected_bytes_freed, bytes_freed);
     }
+
+    void checkVisibility(bool in_dalvik_cache, int32_t expected_visibility) {
+        int32_t visibility;
+        ASSERT_BINDER_SUCCESS(service_->getOdexVisibility(package_name_, apk_path_, kRuntimeIsa,
+                                                          in_dalvik_cache
+                                                                  ? std::nullopt
+                                                                  : std::make_optional<std::string>(
+                                                                            app_oat_dir_.c_str()),
+                                                          &visibility));
+        EXPECT_EQ(visibility, expected_visibility);
+    }
+
+    void TestGetOdexVisibility(bool in_dalvik_cache) {
+        const char* oat_dir = in_dalvik_cache ? nullptr : app_oat_dir_.c_str();
+
+        checkVisibility(in_dalvik_cache, ODEX_NOT_FOUND);
+
+        CompilePrimaryDexOk("speed-profile",
+                            DEXOPT_BOOTCOMPLETE | DEXOPT_PROFILE_GUIDED | DEXOPT_PUBLIC |
+                                    DEXOPT_GENERATE_APP_IMAGE,
+                            oat_dir, kTestAppGid, DEX2OAT_FROM_SCRATCH,
+                            /*binder_result=*/nullptr, empty_dm_file_.c_str());
+        checkVisibility(in_dalvik_cache, ODEX_IS_PUBLIC);
+
+        CompilePrimaryDexOk("speed-profile",
+                            DEXOPT_BOOTCOMPLETE | DEXOPT_PROFILE_GUIDED | DEXOPT_GENERATE_APP_IMAGE,
+                            oat_dir, kTestAppGid, DEX2OAT_FROM_SCRATCH,
+                            /*binder_result=*/nullptr, empty_dm_file_.c_str());
+        checkVisibility(in_dalvik_cache, ODEX_IS_PRIVATE);
+    }
 };
 
 
@@ -830,6 +860,16 @@
     TestDeleteOdex(/*in_dalvik_cache=*/ true);
 }
 
+TEST_F(DexoptTest, GetOdexVisibilityData) {
+    LOG(INFO) << "GetOdexVisibilityData";
+    TestGetOdexVisibility(/*in_dalvik_cache=*/false);
+}
+
+TEST_F(DexoptTest, GetOdexVisibilityDalvikCache) {
+    LOG(INFO) << "GetOdexVisibilityDalvikCache";
+    TestGetOdexVisibility(/*in_dalvik_cache=*/true);
+}
+
 TEST_F(DexoptTest, ResolveStartupConstStrings) {
     LOG(INFO) << "DexoptDex2oatResolveStartupStrings";
     const std::string property = "persist.device_config.runtime.dex2oat_resolve_startup_strings";
@@ -1105,13 +1145,16 @@
         ASSERT_TRUE(AreFilesEqual(ref_profile_content, ref_profile_));
     }
 
-    // TODO(calin): add dex metadata tests once the ART change is merged.
     void preparePackageProfile(const std::string& package_name, const std::string& profile_name,
-            bool expected_result) {
+                               bool has_dex_metadata, bool has_user_id, bool expected_result) {
         bool result;
-        ASSERT_BINDER_SUCCESS(service_->prepareAppProfile(
-                package_name, kTestUserId, kTestAppId, profile_name, apk_path_,
-                /*dex_metadata*/ {}, &result));
+        ASSERT_BINDER_SUCCESS(
+                service_->prepareAppProfile(package_name, has_user_id ? kTestUserId : USER_NULL,
+                                            kTestAppId, profile_name, apk_path_,
+                                            has_dex_metadata ? std::make_optional<std::string>(
+                                                                       empty_dm_file_)
+                                                             : std::nullopt,
+                                            &result));
         ASSERT_EQ(expected_result, result);
 
         if (!expected_result) {
@@ -1119,16 +1162,29 @@
             return;
         }
 
-        std::string code_path_cur_prof = create_current_profile_path(
-                kTestUserId, package_name, profile_name, /*is_secondary_dex*/ false);
-        std::string code_path_ref_profile = create_reference_profile_path(package_name,
-                profile_name, /*is_secondary_dex*/ false);
+        std::string code_path_cur_prof =
+                create_current_profile_path(kTestUserId, package_name, profile_name,
+                                            /*is_secondary_dex*/ false);
+        std::string code_path_ref_profile =
+                create_reference_profile_path(package_name, profile_name,
+                                              /*is_secondary_dex*/ false);
 
-        // Check that we created the current profile.
-        CheckFileAccess(code_path_cur_prof, kTestAppUid, kTestAppUid, 0600 | S_IFREG);
+        if (has_user_id) {
+            // Check that we created the current profile.
+            CheckFileAccess(code_path_cur_prof, kTestAppUid, kTestAppUid, 0600 | S_IFREG);
+        } else {
+            // Without a user ID, we don't generate a current profile.
+            ASSERT_EQ(-1, access(code_path_cur_prof.c_str(), R_OK));
+        }
 
-        // Without dex metadata we don't generate a reference profile.
-        ASSERT_EQ(-1, access(code_path_ref_profile.c_str(), R_OK));
+        if (has_dex_metadata) {
+            int32_t uid = has_user_id ? kTestAppUid : multiuser_get_uid(USER_SYSTEM, kTestAppId);
+            // Check that we created the reference profile.
+            CheckFileAccess(code_path_ref_profile, uid, uid, 0640 | S_IFREG);
+        } else {
+            // Without dex metadata, we don't generate a reference profile.
+            ASSERT_EQ(-1, access(code_path_ref_profile.c_str(), R_OK));
+        }
     }
 
   protected:
@@ -1273,12 +1329,32 @@
 
 TEST_F(ProfileTest, ProfilePrepareOk) {
     LOG(INFO) << "ProfilePrepareOk";
-    preparePackageProfile(package_name_, "split.prof", /*expected_result*/ true);
+    preparePackageProfile(package_name_, "split.prof", /*has_dex_metadata*/ true,
+                          /*has_user_id*/ true, /*expected_result*/ true);
+}
+
+TEST_F(ProfileTest, ProfilePrepareOkNoUser) {
+    LOG(INFO) << "ProfilePrepareOk";
+    preparePackageProfile(package_name_, "split.prof", /*has_dex_metadata*/ true,
+                          /*has_user_id*/ false, /*expected_result*/ true);
+}
+
+TEST_F(ProfileTest, ProfilePrepareOkNoDm) {
+    LOG(INFO) << "ProfilePrepareOk";
+    preparePackageProfile(package_name_, "split.prof", /*has_dex_metadata*/ false,
+                          /*has_user_id*/ true, /*expected_result*/ true);
+}
+
+TEST_F(ProfileTest, ProfilePrepareOkNoUserNoDm) {
+    LOG(INFO) << "ProfilePrepareOk";
+    preparePackageProfile(package_name_, "split.prof", /*has_dex_metadata*/ false,
+                          /*has_user_id*/ false, /*expected_result*/ true);
 }
 
 TEST_F(ProfileTest, ProfilePrepareFailInvalidPackage) {
     LOG(INFO) << "ProfilePrepareFailInvalidPackage";
-    preparePackageProfile("not.there.package", "split.prof", /*expected_result*/ false);
+    preparePackageProfile("not.there.package", "split.prof", /*has_dex_metadata*/ true,
+                          /*has_user_id*/ true, /*expected_result*/ false);
 }
 
 TEST_F(ProfileTest, ProfilePrepareFailProfileChangedUid) {
@@ -1286,7 +1362,8 @@
     SetupProfiles(/*setup_ref*/ false);
     // Change the uid on the profile to trigger a failure.
     ::chown(cur_profile_.c_str(), kTestAppUid + 1, kTestAppGid + 1);
-    preparePackageProfile(package_name_, "primary.prof", /*expected_result*/ false);
+    preparePackageProfile(package_name_, "primary.prof", /*has_dex_metadata*/ true,
+                          /*has_user_id*/ true, /*expected_result*/ false);
 }