runtime/doc/vim9class.txt

*vim9class.txt*	For Vim version 9.0.  Last change: 2023 Mar 22


		  VIM REFERENCE MANUAL	  by Bram Moolenaar


NOTE - This is not finished yet, anything can still change! - NOTE


Vim9 classes, objects, interfaces, types and enums.

1.  Overview			|Vim9-class-overview|
2.  A simple class		|Vim9-simple-class|
3.  Class members and functions	|Vim9-class-member|
4.  Using an abstract class	|Vim9-abstract-class|
5.  Using an interface		|Vim9-using-interface|
6.  More class details		|Vim9-class|
7.  Type definition		|Vim9-type|
8.  Enum			|Vim9-enum|

9.  Rationale
10. To be done later

==============================================================================

1. Overview					*Vim9-class-overview*

The fancy term is "object-oriented programming".  You can find lots of study
material on this subject.  Here we document what |Vim9| script provides,
assuming you know the basics already.  Added are helpful hints about how to
use this functionality effectively.

The basic item is an object:
- An object stores state.  It contains one or more variables that can each
  have a value.
- An object provides functions that use and manipulate its state.  These
  functions are invoked "on the object", which is what sets it apart from the
  traditional separation of data and code that manipulates the data.
- An object has a well defined interface, with typed member variables and
  member functions.
- Objects are created from a class and all objects have the same interface.
  This does not change at runtime, it is not dynamic.

An object can only be created by a class.  A class provides:
- A new() method, the constructor, which returns an object for the class.
  This method is invoked on the class name: MyClass.new().
- State shared by all objects of the class: class variables (class members).
- A hierarchy of classes, with super-classes and sub-classes, inheritance.

An interface is used to specify properties of an object:
- An object can declare several interfaces that it implements.
- Different objects implementing the same interface can be used the same way.

The class hierarchy allows for single inheritance.  Otherwise interfaces are
to be used where needed.


Class modeling ~

You can model classes any way you like.  Keep in mind what you are building,
don't try to model the real world.  This can be confusing, especially because
teachers use real-world objects to explain class relations and you might think
your model should therefore reflect the real world.  It doesn't!  The model
should match your purpose.

Keep in mind that composition (an object contains other objects) is often
better than inheritance (an object extends another object).  Don't waste time
trying to find the optimal class model.  Or waste time discussing whether a
square is a rectangle or that a rectangle is a square.  It doesn't matter.


==============================================================================

2.  A simple class				*Vim9-simple-class*

Let's start with a simple example: a class that stores a text position (see
below for how to do this more efficiently): >

	class TextPosition
	   this.lnum: number
	   this.col: number

	   def new(lnum: number, col: number)
	      this.lnum = lnum
	      this.col = col
	   enddef

	   def SetLnum(lnum: number)
	      this.lnum = lnum
	   enddef

	   def SetCol(col: number)
	      this.col = col
	   enddef

	   def SetPosition(lnum: number, col: number)
	      this.lnum = lnum
	      this.col = col
	   enddef
	 endclass
<							*object* *Object*
You can create an object from this class with the new() method: >

	var pos = TextPosition.new(1, 1)

The object members "lnum" and "col" can be accessed directly: >

	echo $'The text position is ({pos.lnum}, {pos.col})'
<							*E1317* *E1327*
If you have been using other object-oriented languages you will notice that
in Vim the object members are consistently referred to with the "this."
prefix.  This is different from languages like Java and TypeScript.  The
naming convention makes the object members easy to spot.  Also, when a
variable does not have the "this." prefix you know it is not an object member.


Member write access ~

Now try to change an object member directly: >

	pos.lnum = 9
<							*E1335*
This will give you an error!  That is because by default object members can be
read but not set.  That's why the TextPosition class provides a method for it: >

	pos.SetLnum(9)

Allowing to read but not set an object member is the most common and safest
way.  Most often there is no problem using a value, while setting a value may
have side effects that need to be taken care of.  In this case, the SetLnum()
method could check if the line number is valid and either give an error or use
the closest valid value.
							*:public* *E1331*
If you don't care about side effects and want to allow the object member to be
changed at any time, you can make it public: >

	public this.lnum: number
	public this.col: number

Now you don't need the SetLnum(), SetCol() and SetPosition() methods, setting
"pos.lnum" directly above will no longer give an error.
							*E1334*
If you try to set an object member that doesn't exist you get an error: >
	pos.other = 9
<	E1334: Object member not found: other ~


Private members ~
							*E1332* *E1333*
On the other hand, if you do not want the object members to be read directly,
you can make them private.  This is done by prefixing an underscore to the
name: >

	this._lnum: number
	this._col number

Now you need to provide methods to get the value of the private members.
These are commonly called getters.  We recommend using a name that starts with
"Get": >

	def GetLnum(): number
	   return this._lnum
	enddef

	def GetCol() number
	   return this._col
	enddef

This example isn't very useful, the members might as well have been public.
It does become useful if you check the value.  For example, restrict the line
number to the total number of lines: >

	def GetLnum(): number
	   if this._lnum > this._lineCount
	      return this._lineCount
	   endif
	   return this._lnum
	enddef


Private methods ~
If you want object methods to be accessible only from other methods of the
same class and not used from outside the class, then you can make them
private.  This is done by prefixing the method name with an underscore: >

    class SomeClass
	def _Foo(): number
	  return 10
	enddef
	def Bar(): number
	  return this._Foo()
	enddef
    endclass
<
Accessing a private method outside the class will result in an error (using
the above class): >

    var a = SomeClass.new()
    a._Foo()
<
Simplifying the new() method ~

Many constructors take values for the object members.  Thus you very often see
this pattern: >

	 class SomeClass
	   this.lnum: number
	   this.col: number

	   def new(lnum: number, col: number)
	      this.lnum = lnum
	      this.col = col
	   enddef
	 endclass

Not only is this text you need to write, it also has the type of each member
twice.  Since this is so common a shorter way to write new() is provided: >

	   def new(this.lnum, this.col)
	   enddef

The semantics are easy to understand: Providing the object member name,
including "this.", as the argument to new() means the value provided in the
new() call is assigned to that object member.  This mechanism comes from the
Dart language.

Putting together this way of using new() and making the members public results
in a much shorter class definition than what we started with: >

	class TextPosition
	   public this.lnum: number
	   public this.col: number

	   def new(this.lnum, this.col)
	   enddef

	   def SetPosition(lnum: number, col: number)
	      this.lnum = lnum
	      this.col = col
	   enddef
	 endclass

The sequence of constructing a new object is:
1. Memory is allocated and cleared.  All values are zero/false/empty.
2. For each declared member that has an initializer, the expression is
   evaluated and assigned to the member.  This happens in the sequence the
   members are declared in the class.
3. Arguments in the new() method in the "this.name" form are assigned.
4. The body of the new() method is executed.

If the class extends a parent class, the same thing happens.  In the second
step the members of the parent class are done first.  There is no need to call
"super()" or "new()" on the parent.

When defining the new() method the return type should not be specified.  It
always returns an object of the class.

==============================================================================

3.  class members and functions			*Vim9-class-member*

						*:static* *E1337* *E1338*
Class members are declared with "static".  They are used by the name without a
prefix: >

	class OtherThing
	   this.size: number
	   static totalSize: number

	   def new(this.size)
	      totalSize += this.size
	   enddef
	endclass
<							*E1340* *E1341*
Since the name is used as-is, shadowing the name by a function argument name
or local variable name is not allowed.

Just like object members the access can be made private by using an underscore
as the first character in the name, and it can be made public by prefixing
"public": >

    class OtherThing
	static total: number	      # anybody can read, only class can write
	static _sum: number	      # only class can read and write
	public static result: number  # anybody can read and write
    endclass
<
							*class-function*
Class functions are also declared with "static".  They have no access to
object members, they cannot use the "this" keyword. >

	class OtherThing
	   this.size: number
	   static totalSize: number

	   # Clear the total size and return the value it had before.
	   static def ClearTotalSize(): number
	      var prev = totalSize
	      totalSize = 0
	      return prev
	   enddef
	endclass

Inside the class the function can be called by name directly, outside the
class the class name must be prefixed: `OtherThing.ClearTotalSize()`.

Just like object methods the access can be made private by using an underscore
as the first character in the method name: >

    class OtherThing
	static def _Foo()
	    echo "Foo"
	enddef
	def Bar()
	    OtherThing._Foo()
	enddef
    endclass
<
							*E1370*
Note that constructors cannot be declared as "static", because they always
are.

==============================================================================

4.  Using an abstract class			*Vim9-abstract-class*

An abstract class forms the base for at least one sub-class.  In the class
model one often finds that a few classes have the same properties that can be
shared, but a class with these properties does not have enough state to create
an object from.  A sub-class must extend the abstract class and add the
missing state and/or methods before it can be used to create objects for.

For example, a Shape class could store a color and thickness.  You cannot
create a Shape object, it is missing the information about what kind of shape
it is.  The Shape class functions as the base for a Square and a Triangle
class, for which objects can be created.  Example: >

	abstract class Shape
	   this.color = Color.Black
	   this.thickness = 10
	endclass

	class Square extends Shape
	   this.size: number

	   def new(this.size)
	   enddef
	endclass

	class Triangle extends Shape
	   this.base: number
	   this.height: number

	   def new(this.base, this.height)
	   enddef
	endclass
<
An abstract class is defined the same way as a normal class, except that it
does not have any new() method. *E1359*

						*abstract-method*
An abstract method can be defined in an abstract class by using the "abstract"
prefix when defining the function: >

	abstract class Shape
	   abstract def Draw()
	endclass

A class extending the abstract class must implement all the abstract methods.
Class methods in an abstract class can also be abstract methods.

==============================================================================

5.  Using an interface				*Vim9-using-interface*

The example above with Shape, Square and Triangle can be made more useful if
we add a method to compute the surface of the object.  For that we create the
interface called HasSurface, which specifies one method Surface() that returns
a number.  This example extends the one above: >

	abstract class Shape
	   this.color = Color.Black
	   this.thickness = 10
	endclass

	interface HasSurface
	   def Surface(): number
	endinterface

	class Square extends Shape implements HasSurface
	   this.size: number

	   def new(this.size)
	   enddef

	   def Surface(): number
	      return this.size * this.size
	   enddef
	endclass

	class Triangle extends Shape implements HasSurface
	   this.base: number
	   this.height: number

	   def new(this.base, this.height)
	   enddef

	   def Surface(): number
	      return this.base * this.height / 2
	   enddef
	endclass

If a class declares to implement an interface, all the items specified in the
interface must appear in the class, with the same types. *E1348* *E1349*

The interface name can be used as a type: >

	var shapes: list<HasSurface> = [
				Square.new(12),
				Triangle.new(8, 15),
				]
	for shape in shapes
	   echo $'the surface is {shape.Surface()}'
	endfor


==============================================================================

6.  More class details				*Vim9-class* *Class* *class*

Defining a class ~
					*:class* *:endclass* *:abstract*
A class is defined between `:class` and `:endclass`.  The whole class is
defined in one script file.  It is not possible to add to a class later.

A class can only be defined in a |Vim9| script file.  *E1316*
A class cannot be defined inside a function.

It is possible to define more than one class in a script file.  Although it
usually is better to export only one main class.  It can be useful to define
types, enums and helper classes though.

The `:abstract` keyword may be prefixed and `:export` may be used.  That gives
these variants: >

	class ClassName
	endclass

	export class ClassName
	endclass

	abstract class ClassName
	endclass

	export abstract class ClassName
	endclass
<
							*E1314*
The class name should be CamelCased.  It must start with an uppercase letter.
That avoids clashing with builtin types.
							*E1315*
After the class name these optional items can be used.  Each can appear only
once.  They can appear in any order, although this order is recommended: >
	extends ClassName
	implements InterfaceName, OtherInterface
	specifies SomeInterface
<							*E1355*
Each member and function name can be used only once.  It is not possible to
define a function with the same name and different type of arguments.


Member Initialization ~
If the type of a member is not explicitly specified in a class, then it is set
to "any" during class definition.  When an object is instantiated from the
class, then the type of the member is set.


Extending a class ~
							*extends*
A class can extend one other class. *E1352* *E1353* *E1354*
The basic idea is to build on top of an existing class, add properties to it.

The extended class is called the "base class" or "super class".  The new class
is called the "child class".

Object members from the base class are all taken over by the child class.  It
is not possible to override them (unlike some other languages).

						*E1356* *E1357* *E1358*
Object methods of the base class can be overruled.  The signature (arguments,
argument types and return type) must be exactly the same.  The method of the
base class can be called by prefixing "super.".

Other object methods of the base class are taken over by the child class.

Class functions, including functions starting with "new", can be overruled,
like with object methods.  The function on the base class can be called by
prefixing the name of the class (for class functions) or "super.".

Unlike other languages, the constructor of the base class does not need to be
invoked.  In fact, it cannot be invoked.  If some initialization from the base
class also needs to be done in a child class, put it in an object method and
call that method from every constructor().

If the base class did not specify a new() function then one was automatically
created.  This function will not be taken over by the child class.  The child
class can define its own new() function, or, if there isn't one, a new()
function will be added automatically.


A class implementing an interface ~
						*implements* *E1346* *E1347*
A class can implement one or more interfaces.  The "implements" keyword can
only appear once *E1350* .  Multiple interfaces can be specified, separated by
commas.  Each interface name can appear only once. *E1351*


A class defining an interface ~
							*specifies*
A class can declare its interface, the object members and methods, with a
named interface.  This avoids the need for separately specifying the
interface, which is often done in many languages, especially Java.


Items in a class ~
						*E1318* *E1325* *E1326*
Inside a class, in between `:class` and `:endclass`, these items can appear:
- An object member declaration: >
	this._memberName: memberType
	this.memberName: memberType
	public this.memberName: memberType
- A constructor method: >
	def new(arguments)
	def newName(arguments)
- An object method: >
	def SomeMethod(arguments)
<							*E1329*
For the object member the type must be specified.  The best way is to do this
explicitly with ": {type}".  For simple types you can also use an initializer,
such as "= 123", and Vim will see that the type is a number.  Avoid doing this
for more complex types and when the type will be incomplete.  For example: >
	this.nameList = []
This specifies a list, but the item type is unknown.  Better use: >
	this.nameList: list<string>
The initialization isn't needed, the list is empty by default.
							*E1330*
Some types cannot be used, such as "void", "null" and "v:none".


Defining an interface ~
						*:interface* *:endinterface*
An interface is defined between `:interface` and `:endinterface`.  It may be
prefixed with `:export`: >

	interface InterfaceName
	endinterface

	export interface InterfaceName
	endinterface
<							*E1344*
An interface can declare object members, just like in a class but without any
initializer.
							*E1345*
An interface can declare methods with `:def`, including the arguments and
return type, but without the body and without `:enddef`.  Example: >

	interface HasSurface
	   this.size: number
	   def Surface(): number
	endinterface

An interface name must start with an uppercase letter. *E1343*
The "Has" prefix can be used to make it easier to guess this is an interface
name, with a hint about what it provides.
An interface can only be defined in a |Vim9| script file.  *E1342*


null object ~

When a variable is declared to have the type of an object, but it is not
initialized, the value is null.  When trying to use this null object Vim often
does not know what class was supposed to be used.  Vim then cannot check if
a member name is correct and you will get an "Using a null object" error,
even when the member name is invalid. *E1360* *E1362* *E1363*


Default constructor ~

In case you define a class without a new() method, one will be automatically
defined.  This default constructor will have arguments for all the object
members, in the order they were specified.  Thus if your class looks like: >

	class AutoNew
	   this.name: string
	   this.age: number
	   this.gender: Gender
	endclass

Then The default constructor will be: >

	def new(this.name = v:none, this.age = v:none, this.gender = v:none)
	enddef

The "= v:none" default values make the arguments optional.  Thus you can also
call `new()` without any arguments.  No assignment will happen and the default
value for the object members will be used.  This is a more useful example,
with default values: >

	class TextPosition
	   this.lnum: number = 1
	   this.col: number = 1
	endclass

If you want the constructor to have mandatory arguments, you need to write it
yourself.  For example, if for the AutoNew class above you insist on getting
the name, you can define the constructor like this: >

	def new(this.name, this.age = v:none, this.gender = v:none)
	enddef
<							*E1328*
Note that you cannot use another default value than "v:none" here.  If you
want to initialize the object members, do it where they are declared.  This
way you only need to look in one place for the default values.

All object members will be used in the default constructor, also private
access ones.

If the class extends another one, the object members of that class will come
first.


Multiple constructors ~

Normally a class has just one new() constructor.  In case you find that the
constructor is often called with the same arguments you may want to simplify
your code by putting those arguments into a second constructor method.  For
example, if you tend to use the color black a lot: >

	def new(this.garment, this.color, this.size)
	enddef
	...
	var pants = new(Garment.pants, Color.black, "XL")
	var shirt = new(Garment.shirt, Color.black, "XL")
	var shoes = new(Garment.shoes, Color.black, "45")

Instead of repeating the color every time you can add a constructor that
includes it: >

	def newBlack(this.garment, this.size)
	   this.color = Color.black
	enddef
	...
	var pants = newBlack(Garment.pants, "XL")
	var shirt = newBlack(Garment.shirt, "XL")
	var shoes = newBlack(Garment.shoes, "9.5")

Note that the method name must start with "new".  If there is no method called
"new()" then the default constructor is added, even though there are other
constructor methods.


==============================================================================

7.  Type definition					*Vim9-type* *:type*

A type definition is giving a name to a type specification.  For Example: >

	:type ListOfStrings list<string>

TODO: more explanation


==============================================================================

8.  Enum					*Vim9-enum* *:enum* *:endenum*

An enum is a type that can have one of a list of values.  Example: >

	:enum Color
		White
		Red
		Green
		Blue
		Black
	:endenum

TODO: more explanation


==============================================================================

9.  Rationale

Most of the choices for |Vim9| classes come from popular and recently
developed languages, such as Java, TypeScript and Dart.  The syntax has been
made to fit with the way Vim script works, such as using `endclass` instead of
using curly braces around the whole class.

Some common constructs of object-oriented languages were chosen very long ago
when this kind of programming was still new, and later found to be
sub-optimal.  By this time those constructs were widely used and changing them
was not an option.  In Vim we do have the freedom to make different choices,
since classes are completely new.  We can make the syntax simpler and more
consistent than what "old" languages use.  Without diverting too much, it
should still mostly look like what you know from existing languages.

Some recently developed languages add all kinds of fancy features that we
don't need for Vim.  But some have nice ideas that we do want to use.
Thus we end up with a base of what is common in popular languages, dropping
what looks like a bad idea, and adding some nice features that are easy to
understand.

The main rules we use to make decisions:
- Keep it simple.
- No surprises, mostly do what other languages are doing.
- Avoid mistakes from the past.
- Avoid the need for the script writer to consult the help to understand how
  things work, most things should be obvious.
- Keep it consistent.
- Aim at an average size plugin, not at a huge project.


Using new() for the constructor ~

Many languages use the class name for the constructor method.  A disadvantage
is that quite often this is a long name.  And when changing the class name all
constructor methods need to be renamed.  Not a big deal, but still a
disadvantage.

Other languages, such as TypeScript, use a specific name, such as
"constructor()".  That seems better.  However, using "new" or "new()" to
create a new object has no obvious relation with "constructor()".

For |Vim9| script using the same method name for all constructors seemed like
the right choice, and by calling it new() the relation between the caller and
the method being called is obvious.


No overloading of the constructor ~

In Vim script, both legacy and |Vim9| script, there is no overloading of
functions.  That means it is not possible to use the same function name with
different types of arguments.  Therefore there also is only one new()
constructor.

With |Vim9| script it would be possible to support overloading, since
arguments are typed.  However, this gets complicated very quickly.  Looking at
a new() call one has to inspect the types of the arguments to know which of
several new() methods is actually being called.  And that can require
inspecting quite a bit of code.  For example, if one of the arguments is the
return value of a method, you need to find that method to see what type it is
returning.

Instead, every constructor has to have a different name, starting with "new".
That way multiple constructors with different arguments are possible, while it
is very easy to see which constructor is being used.  And the type of
arguments can be properly checked.


No overloading of methods ~

Same reasoning as for the constructor: It is often not obvious what type
arguments have, which would make it difficult to figure out what method is
actually being called.  Better just give the methods a different name, then
type checking will make sure it works as you intended.  This rules out
polymorphism, which we don't really need anyway.


Single inheritance and interfaces ~

Some languages support multiple inheritance.  Although that can be useful in
some cases, it makes the rules of how a class works quite complicated.
Instead, using interfaces to declare what is supported is much simpler.  The
very popular Java language does it this way, and it should be good enough for
Vim.  The "keep it simple" rule applies here.

Explicitly declaring that a class supports an interface makes it easy to see
what a class is intended for.  It also makes it possible to do proper type
checking.  When an interface is changed any class that declares to implement
it will be checked if that change was also changed.  The mechanism to assume a
class implements an interface just because the methods happen to match is
brittle and leads to obscure problems, let's not do that.


Using "this.member" everywhere ~

The object members in various programming languages can often be accessed in
different ways, depending on the location.  Sometimes "this." has to be
prepended to avoid ambiguity.  They are usually declared without "this.".
That is quite inconsistent and sometimes confusing.

A very common issue is that in the constructor the arguments use the same name
as the object member.  Then for these members "this." needs to be prefixed in
the body, while for other members this is not needed and often omitted.  This
leads to a mix of members with and without "this.", which is inconsistent.

For |Vim9| classes the "this." prefix is always used.  Also for declaring the
members.  Simple and consistent.  When looking at the code inside a class it's
also directly clear which variable references are object members and which
aren't.


Using class members ~

Using "static member" to declare a class member is very common, nothing new
here.  In |Vim9| script these can be accessed directly by their name.  Very
much like how a script-local variable can be used in a function.  Since object
members are always accessed with "this." prepended, it's also quickly clear
what kind of member it is.

TypeScript prepends the class name before the class member, also inside the
class.  This has two problems: The class name can be rather long, taking up
quite a bit of space, and when the class is renamed all these places need to
be changed too.


Declaring object and class members ~

The main choice is whether to use "var" as with variable declarations.
TypeScript does not use it: >
	class Point {
	  x: number;
	  y = 0;
	}

Following that Vim object members could be declared like this: >
	class Point
	  this.x: number
	  this.y = 0
	endclass

Some users pointed out that this looks more like an assignment than a
declaration.  Adding "var" changes that: >
	class Point
	  var this.x: number
	  var this.y = 0
	endclass

We also need to be able to declare class members using the "static" keyword.
There we can also choose to leave out "var": >
	class Point
	  var this.x: number
	  static count = 0
	endclass

Or do use it, before "static": >
	class Point
	  var this.x: number
	  var static count = 0
	endclass

Or after "static": >
	class Point
	  var this.x: number
	  static var count = 0
	endclass

This is more in line with "static def Func()".

There is no clear preference whether to use "var" or not.  The two main
reasons to leave it out are:
1. TypeScript, Java and other popular languages do not use it.
2. Less clutter.


Using "ClassName.new()" to construct an object ~

Many languages use the "new" operator to create an object, which is actually
kind of strange, since the constructor is defined as a method with arguments,
not a command.  TypeScript also has the "new" keyword, but the method is
called "constructor()", it is hard to see the relation between the two.

In |Vim9| script the constructor method is called new(), and it is invoked as
new(), simple and straightforward.  Other languages use "new ClassName()",
while there is no ClassName() method, it's a method by another name in the
class called ClassName.  Quite confusing.


Default read access to object members ~

Some users will remark that the access rules for object members are
asymmetric.  Well, that is intentional.  Changing a value is a very different
action than reading a value.  The read operation has no side effects, it can
be done any number of times without affecting the object.  Changing the value
can have many side effects, and even have a ripple effect, affecting other
objects.

When adding object members one usually doesn't think much about this, just get
the type right.  And normally the values are set in the new() method.
Therefore defaulting to read access only "just works" in most cases.  And when
directly writing you get an error, which makes you wonder if you actually want
to allow that.  This helps writing code with fewer mistakes.


Making object members private with an underscore ~

When an object member is private, it can only be read and changed inside the
class (and in sub-classes), then it cannot be used outside of the class.
Prepending an underscore is a simple way to make that visible.  Various
programming languages have this as a recommendation.

In case you change your mind and want to make the object member accessible
outside of the class, you will have to remove the underscore everywhere.
Since the name only appears in the class (and sub-classes) they will be easy
to find and change.

The other way around is much harder: you can easily prepend an underscore to
the object member inside the class to make it private, but any usage elsewhere
you will have to track down and change.  You may have to make it a "set"
method call.  This reflects the real world problem that taking away access
requires work to be done for all places where that access exists.

An alternative would have been using the "private" keyword, just like "public"
changes the access in the other direction.  Well, that's just to reduce the
number of keywords.


No protected object members ~

Some languages provide several ways to control access to object members.  The
most known is "protected", and the meaning varies from language to language.
Others are "shared", "private" and even "friend".

These rules make life more difficult.  That can be justified in projects where
many people work on the same, complex code where it is easy to make mistakes.
Especially when refactoring or other changes to the class model.

The Vim scripts are expected to be used in a plugin, with just one person or a
small team working on it.  Complex rules then only make it more complicated,
the extra safety provided by the rules isn't really needed.  Let's just keep
it simple and not specify access details.


==============================================================================

10. To be done later

Can a newSomething() constructor invoke another constructor?  If yes, what are
the restrictions?

Thoughts:
- Generics for a class: `class <Tkey, Tentry>`
- Generics for a function: `def <Tkey> GetLast(key: Tkey)`
- Mixins: not sure if that is useful, leave out for simplicity.

Some things that look like good additions:
- For testing: Mock mechanism

An important class to be provided is "Promise".  Since Vim is single
threaded, connecting asynchronous operations is a natural way of allowing
plugins to do their work without blocking the user.  It's a uniform way to
invoke callbacks and handle timeouts and errors.


 vim:tw=78:ts=8:noet:ft=help:norl: